1 Iraq’s tough governance setting: Examining the importance of self-sacrifice over institutions to public service motivation Dhirgham Alobaydi, University of Baghdad Bonnie J. Johnson, University of Kansas, bojojohn@ku.edu Jonathan Templin, University of Iowa Abstract Public service motivation (PSM) is understudied within ‘tough governance settings’ such Iraq’s, as it transitioned from dictatorship to democracy amidst civil unrest. Debates surrounding a universal construct of PSM currently focus on whether a love of public institutions is an essential component, or if measures of self-sacrifice will suffice. Results from a multidimensional PSM measure previously utilized in western settings are used here in Iraq. The results demonstrate that items from typical PSM dimensions remain in the model, but the pro-social, self-sacrifice dimension is the only reliable subscale. Reinforcing a pro-social foundation of PSM, a pro-social unidimensional measure fits the data well and respondents themselves define ‘public service’ in pro-social terms. Showing little connection to institutions, PSM in Iraq correlates with public servants determining the public interest based on their knowledge of their communities and of citizens and less on professional expertise, adopted plans or on guidance from elected officials. Contrary to reports of a divided Iraq, PSM scores are similar across regions. These insights have implications for PSM measurement, governance choices in developing countries, and comparative public administration research. Introduction Public service motivation (PSM) research has examined, at a minimum, some 73 different nation-states (Perry 2014, Ritz et al. 2016, Van der Wal 2015), while refining the PSM construct. However, PSM is understudied in ‘tough governance settings’ (Van der Wal 2015: 83), such as that of Iraq. ‘Tough governance settings’ are defined as those experiencing corruption, unsafe political climates, low public sector capacity, and international pressures for public service reform (Andrews 2013; Van der Wal 2015). Iraq has experienced significant institutional changes in its transition from a dictatorial regime to a democratic system over a short time frame, along with persecution, terrorism and ethno-religious divisions (Al-Ali 2014; Barsoum 2016; Hussain and Ahmad 2015; Kim 2015; Moloney and Chu 2016; Van der Wal 2015). Perry and Wise’s original definition of public service motivation is ‘an individual’s predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institutions and organizations’ (1990: 368). However, what happens to PSM if public institutions are contested or in flux? Iraq is the focus of this study because of its ‘tough’ context which is contrary to the majority of past PSM research (80 per cent in Europe or the United States) (Van der Wal 2015: 69) conducted in stable nations with established institutions and public service systems. To advance PSM research, Perry and Vandenabeele (2015) call for separating the PSM construct into its components, thereby allowing for an examination of how PSM differs by regime type and allowing for a better understanding of the role of institutions. For this article we follow Perry and Vandenabeele’s (2015) direction by providing an overview of the PSM construct and