Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 49 (2023) 103853 Available online 17 March 2023 2352-409X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. A ceramic kiln of the Early Bronze Age from Tel Lod in the southern Levant: Microarchaeological analyses and technological signifcance Amir Golani a , Yotam Asscher b, * a Dept. of Archaeological Research and Specializations, Israel Antiquities Authority, POB 586 Jerusalem 91004, Israel b Artifacts Treatment and Conservation Department, Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem 91004, Israel A R T I C L E INFO Keywords: Early Bronze southern Levant Tel Lod Ceramic fring technology Two-storey updraft kiln FTIR Petrography ABSTRACT A two-storey updraft ceramic kiln of mudbrick and clay, dated by associated ceramic fnds to the Early Bronze (EB) IB period, and by radiocarbon dating to the end of the 4th millennium BC, has been found adjacent to a large, possibly public structure at Tel Lod. Mineralogical analysis based on Infrared spectroscopy demonstrates that temperatures between 700 and 800 ◦ C were achieved in this installation, and thin sections analysis show that the mudbricks of the walls were intentionally enriched with quartz, a mineral known for its refractory properties. In contrast to open fring or pit kilns known from earlier periods, updraft kilns facilitate better control of the fring process and a more effcient use of fuel, allowing better mass production of durable ceramics of lighter weight that could be more easily transported in larger amounts over longer distances. Proto-Metallic Ware that was found at the site, also associated with the EB IB period, shows variable ranges of temperatures between 500 and 800 ◦ C, indicating that such ceramics could also have been made in this installation. This is one of the earliest examples of this technology in the southern Levant and is observed to coincide with the beginnings of the frst urbanization in this region, expressing a growing need for effcient mass production of well-fred ceramics for a market economy. 1. Introduction The purpose of ceramic fring is to transform clay into a hard, porous and stable material that can withstand a wide range of chemical and physical conditions (Rye 1981: 96). The earliest examples of ceramic fring installations known so far from the Neolithic to Early Bronze Age I period in the southern Levant are relatively simple and consist of shallow pits, within which were placed unfred pottery vessels after drying to a ’leather-hard’ stage, then wrapped in combustible material that was left to burn, thus fring the ceramics. This is the earliest and most traditional method of ceramic fring, known to be used from the initial periods of ceramic production to the present day. This method is effective yet requires a high degree of skill to be successful. Such open installations can also be a simple campfre where combustible material was piled beneath, around and over the pots and then ignited. This method is generally representative of “open fring” (Rice 1987: 153-58; Rye 1981: 96-8) yet control of the fre and the heat is diffcult, so that temperatures nearing 1000 ◦ C are possible, yet diffcult to achieve and even harder to maintain. Pots fred in this way are often fragile and porous due to the relatively low temperatures achieved (ca. 550–650 ◦ C) and the uneven distribution of the heat leading to unequal fring (Gos- selain 1992). In addition, this method is not effcient, as it demands a large amount of fuel, while the fring is often incomplete. The advan- tages of this method are the simplicity and low effort needed to carry it out. Open fring is a satisfactory economic solution for non-industrial potters (Rice 1987: 156). When the fring is carried out in a semi- enclosed area such as a pit, the installation may also be termed a “pit kiln” that is intermediate between open fring and closed updraft kilns (see below; Rice 1987: 158). Pit kilns may achieve higher and longer sustained temperatures than open bonfres as they are partially sub- merged and are better suited to retain the temperature for a longer period of time. One of the earliest such installations from the southern Levant, dated to the Pottery Neolithic period, was excavated at Gebel abu-Thawwab in Jordan, where a shallow pit was uncovered whose sides reveal signs of * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: golani@israntique.org.il (A. Golani), yotama@israntique.org.il (Y. Asscher). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jasrep https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.103853 Received 21 September 2022; Received in revised form 10 January 2023; Accepted 16 January 2023