Sustainable Livelihoods Approach in tropical coastal and marine social–ecological systems: A review Daniella Ferrol-Schulte n , Matthias Wolff, Sebastian Ferse, Marion Glaser Leibniz Centre for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT), Fahrenheitstrabe 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany article info Article history: Received 22 February 2013 Received in revised form 12 March 2013 Accepted 13 March 2013 Keywords: Sustainable livelihoods approach SFLP Social–ecological systems Natural resource management Small-scale fisheries Poverty alleviation abstract Tropical coastal and marine social–ecological systems (CM-SESs) differ from other social–ecological systems through the higher degree of risk and uncertainty associated with coastal and marine resource extraction, the dynamic nature of aquatic and human resources, and often unclear tenure. CM-SES resource management and poverty-alleviation strategies must be adaptive and holistic. The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) provides a framework for understanding and guiding policy-making in CM-SES. Case studies from the past 10 years analyze tropical coastal and marine-resource dependent livelihoods and/or to evaluate current CM-SES management using the SLA. These studies have shown that, despite the rounded and inclusive approach of projects such as the Sustainable Fisheries Livelihoods Programme, key challenges for researchers and practitioners remain including rights and access allocation, corruption, lack of local financial, intellectual and innovative capacity and centralized governance. Whilst the SLA may increase understanding of local-level dynamics within CM-SES, more consultation at interdisciplinary frontiers is needed in order to formulate practical solutions to the core problems of tropical CM-SES management. & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Tropical coastal and marine systems are highly productive and biodiverse, home to around a third of all fish species described [1] and encompassing habitats ranging from coral reefs over man- groves and seagrass beds to sandy marine and estuarine environ- ments. The complex and diverse nature of these environments encourages speciation and niche diversification, hosting biological memory for regeneration in the aftermath of change. Human populations in coastal areas are increasing as a result of migration, development and globalization [2–4]. Coastal and marine envir- onments across the world are being severely degraded by a mosaic of anthropogenic effects [5], ranging from overexploitation, eutro- phication and pollution to habitat destruction and climate change. These processes undermine the quality and quantity of ecological goods and services provided to humans by impairing functions [6] at the local, national and international scale. The most prominent example of human dependence on coastal and marine ecosystems is that of subsistence fishing. Dependence on subsistence fishing for an efficient and high quality source of protein and income is still high, especially in Africa, Asia and Latin America [7]. Around 250 m people depend on coral reefs alone for their livelihoods and sustenance [5], meaning the decline of these goods and services presents a frightening prospect for coastal livelihoods across the globe. For the purposes of this paper, a social–ecological system (SES) is defined as “a bio-geophysical system with its associated social agents and institutions in a problem context” [8:199]. The combi- nation of marine and coastal natural resources and the social and economic realms that operate and change around these resources together comprise a coastal and marine social–ecological system (CM-SES) [9]. The greater the linkage between human livelihoods and natural resources (in both spatial and temporal terms), the more incentive resource users and policy-makers are expected to have to maintain ecosystem integrity and productivity [10]. Livelihoods and the management of natural resources must be adaptable to ecological and social system fluctuations in order to be resilient and sustainable [11] and this is no different in a CM-SES. The complex- ity of CM-SES can impede management schemes, undermining sustainable environmental conservation and poverty alleviation [12–14]. Resource management mechanisms in CM-SES, whether formal or informal, have significant effects on livelihoods in coastal areas [10,15]. Studies suggest that there is scope for enhancing livelihood security but a more holistic analysis of coastal liveli- hoods is necessary in order to effectively manage the CM-SES for sustainability and resilience in the face of global change [16]. Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol Marine Policy 0308-597X/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2013.03.007 n Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49 421 23800 115. E-mail addresses: Daniella.ferrol.schulte@zmt-bremen.de (D. Ferrol-Schulte), Matthias.wolff@zmt-bremen.de (M. Wolff), Sebastian.ferse@zmt-bremen.de (S. Ferse), Marion.glaser@zmt-bremen.de (M. Glaser). Marine Policy 42 (2013) 253–258