A test of social learning and intergenerational transmission among batterers Jennifer Wareham a, ⁎, Denise Paquette Boots b , Jorge M. Chavez c a Department of Criminal Justice, Wayne State University, 3278 Faculty/Administration Building, Detroit, MI 48202, United States b Program in Criminology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, United States c Department of Sociology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, United States abstract article info This research examined the direct and indirect transmission of family-of-origin violence among a sample of male domestic violence offenders. Intergenerational transmission of violence was tested by examining the effects of childhood corporal punishment experiences and witnessing inter-parental physical violence on the odds of reporting minor and severe intimate partner violence perpetration in adulthood. Social learning mechanisms were applied to examine the relationship between abuse experiences and the incidence of minor and severe forms of intimate partner violence. Use of a sample of 204 male domestic batterers attending court-mandated family violence intervention programs in an urban setting revealed considerable variation in minor and severe intimate partner violence. Results from logistic regression models suggested intergenerational transmission and social learning provided distinct mechanisms for both minor and severe forms of intimate partner violence. © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Introduction Despite a bounty of empirical literature on interpersonal violence, the general social learning perspective represents one of the few theoretical frameworks that addresses the etiological underpinnings of domestic violence. Such research draws on a loose learning framework that suggests that abusive behavioral patterns are communicated and passed from parents to their children through an intergenerational transmission of violence (Bandura, 1973; Delsol & Margolin, 2004; Mihalic & Elliott, 1997; Straus, Gelles, & Steinmetz, 1980). That is, dysfunctional parents become role models for their children regarding the appropriateness of using anger and aggression to deal with stressors and frustrations when interacting with their intimate partners. Modeled behaviors are reinforced when the individual perceives favorable outcomes from the use of aggression and violence. Thus, witnessing and experiencing violence within the home during childhood is postulated to have residual effects which impact the use of physical aggression in adult intimate relationships, including incidents of marital and spousal violence (Bevan & Higgins, 2002; Corvo, 2006; Doumas, Margolin, & John, 1994; Holtzworth- Munroe, Bates, Smutzler, & Sandin,1997; Hotaling & Sugarman, 1986; Kalmus, 1984; Straus et al., 1980). While the intergenerational transmission learning perspective has been frequently used to explain intimate partner violence (IPV), 1 the effect sizes reported in this literature are typically small. In a review of family-of-origin violence research, Holtzworth-Munroe et al. (1997) reported modest correlations between IPV and family-of-origin violence. The small effect sizes suggested that there were key, possibly mediating, indicators missing from these theoretical models (Corvo, 2006). In an attempt to address this shortcoming in the literature, Corvo recently integrated elements of attachment theory into an intergenerational transmission of violence framework. This explora- tory analysis, while an important first step, employed a small sample size of domestic violence offenders (n =74) that limited the complex- ity of the model. Despite these shortcomings, Corvo's work provided preliminary support for the tenability of integrating intergenerational transmission perspectives with other theories capable of explaining IPV. Akers' (1973, 1998) social learning theory (SLT) offers a compre- hensive explanation of the specific mechanisms, familial and non- familial, involved in learning violence. More specifically, social learning theory explains the development of individual pro-social and criminal behaviors through observation of others' behaviors, internalization of attitudes and values learned from others, imitation of the behaviors of role models, and reinforcement of behavior through positive and negative punishment. As such, SLT offers an explanation for how individuals exposed to abusive situations within the home during childhood learn and perpetuate a cycle of domestic violence. According to Sellers, Cochran, and Branch (2005), SLT “accommodates and integrates the key theoretical elements of… intergenerational transmission theory” (p. 381), thus, reinforcing the viability of integrating intergenerational transmission theory with SLT. The present work examined the role of SLT in enhancing the understanding of the intergenerational transmission of violence. In Journal of Criminal Justice 37 (2009) 163–173 ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1313 577 3286; fax: +1313 577 9977. E-mail address: jwareham@wayne.edu (J. Wareham). 0047-2352/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.02.011 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Criminal Justice