Citation: Sharmake, M.A.; Sultan, K.; Zaman, Q.u.; Rehman, R.; Hussain, A. Decadal Impacts of Climate Change on Rainfed Agriculture Community in Western Somaliland, Africa. Sustainability 2023, 15, 421. https:// doi.org/10.3390/su15010421 Academic Editor: Andre Luiz Belem Received: 7 November 2022 Revised: 17 December 2022 Accepted: 23 December 2022 Published: 27 December 2022 Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). sustainability Article Decadal Impacts of Climate Change on Rainfed Agriculture Community in Western Somaliland, Africa Mohamed Aden Sharmake 1 , Khawar Sultan 1 , Qamar uz Zaman 1 , Roeya Rehman 2 and Afzal Hussain 1, * 1 Department of Environmental Sciences, The University of Lahore, Lahore 54590, Pakistan 2 Department of Chemistry, The University of Lahore, Lahore 54590, Pakistan * Correspondence: afzal.hussain@envs.uol.edu.pk Abstract: The western region of Somaliland is prone to climate change and variability due to the widespread use of rainfed agriculture, which has been the practice historically since the coloniza- tion era; however, this mode of livelihood is losing its significance due to climate change. This research aims to examine the impact of climate elements’ trends (rainfall and temperature) on rainfed agriculture communities and how these changes affect the rainfed agriculture community. The specific objectives of this study are to determine the major trends of precipitation and temperature over the past three decades, and to assess the level of awareness of climate change in communities’ perception of environmental change in terms of rainfed agriculture. Hence, the study adopted a mixed-methodology approach to concluding the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the research. The main outcome of this study was that climate change has been an active challenge in western rainfed agriculture regions of Somaliland for the last three decades. Decadal precipitation and temper- ature trend analysis (1985–2015) indicated reduced rainfall both annual and seasonal, and an increase in annual temperature, both in terms of the maximum and minimum. The decrease in annual total rainfall from the Awdal and Waqooyi Galbeed regions was 2 mm/year and 1.5 mm/year, respectively, while in the long rainy season, the decrease of rainfall was 1.4 mm per season and 0.88 mm per season, respectively. In the case of maximum and minimum annual temperatures, both stations depict an increase in temperature. This increase in temperature was 0.043–0.045 ◦ C for the Awdal region and 0.06–0.02 ◦ C for the Waqooyi Galbeed. The qualitative phase of this study supported the quantitative observations, and respondents (≥45 years of age) reported decreasing annual rainfall, a declining long rainy season, and increasing maximum and minimum temperatures. Furthermore, participants mentioned an increase in the occurrence of drought, a reduction of rainfed agriculture productivity, the disappearance of indigenous plants and animals, and an increase of exotic plant species. In addi- tion to that, respondents outlined current adaptation practices; however, these adaptation strategies are short-term, and farmers need more appropriate and practical adaptation practices in the future. Keywords: Somaliland; rainfed agriculture; decadal; climate change; impact; Africa 1. Introduction Climate change is already threatening the basics of human survival because it affects the existence of human life, such as the right to safe drinking water, health, housing, and most importantly, the right to access food [1], and in some regions, it triggers conflicts that claim the loss of property and human life [2]. Climate change undermines global sustainable development goals, particularly those aiming to eliminate poverty and reduce hunger, and reach a sustained global environment and economic conditions [3]. Climate change is projected to reduce agriculture productivity in continents such as Africa, where more than half of its population practises rainfed agriculture, by lessening the plantation period, increasing the occurrence of extreme weather events, degrading the existing water resources, and encouraging the proliferation of insects and pests [2,3]. There Sustainability 2023, 15, 421. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010421 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability