Legacy and emerging organophosphοrus flame retardants in car dust from Greece: Implications for human exposure Christina Christia a, b , Giulia Poma a , Athanasios Besis b , Constantini Samara b , Adrian Covaci a, * a Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium b Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Aristotle University, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece highlights  Major PFRs were TCIPP and TDCIPP for EU and Asian cars and TCEP for US cars.  Major ePFRs were V6 for EU cars and iDDPHP for Asian and US cars.  No correlations between PFR concentrations and car interior characteristics.  Intake was higher via dust ingestion than dermal absorption.  PFR intakes via ingestion and dermal absorption were lower than RfDs. article info Article history: Received 16 October 2017 Received in revised form 20 December 2017 Accepted 21 December 2017 Available online 23 December 2017 Handling Editor: Myrto Petreas Keywords: Emerging PFRs Indoor environment Car dust Human exposure abstract Organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) and emerging PFRs (ePFRs) are two groups of compounds used as replacements for brominated flame retardants (BFRs). They have already been detected in indoor dust (mainly in homes and offices). To date, few studies investigated the occurrence of FRs in car dust and the information of possible health risks is still limited. The present study reports on the investigation of the levels and profiles of eight target PFRs: tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (TEHP), tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBEP), triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPHP), tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP), tri cresyl phosphate (TCP), tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) and four target ePFRs; 2,2-bis(chloromethyl)propane-1,3- diyltetrakis(2-chloroethyl)bisphosphate (V6), isodecyl diphenyl phosphate (iDDPHP), resorcinol bis(di- phenylphosphate) (RDP) and bisphenol A-bis(diphenyl phosphate) (BDP) in car dust from Greece. The samples were collected from the interior of 25 private cars in Thessaloniki, Greece, with different years of manufacture (1997e2015) and continents of origin. After ultrasonic extraction and Florisil fractionation, the PFR analysis was carried out by GC-EI/MS, whereas the ePFRs were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Levels of S 8 PFRs varied from 2000 to 190,000 ng g 1 , with mean and median concentrations of 20,000 and 11,500 ng g 1 , respectively. The concentrations of S 4 ePFRs ranged from 44 to 8700 ng g 1 , with mean and median values at 1100 and 190 ng g 1 , respectively. Estimations of human exposure showed that toddlers are more exposed than adults to both PFRs and ePFRs. Yet, the intake via dust ingestion and dermal absorption was several orders of magnitude lower than the corresponding reference doses. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) are a class of organic compounds used as substitute of brominated flame retardants (BFRs) after the restrictions and phase-outs of the latter (Poma et al., 2017). Emerging organophosphorus flame retardants (ePFRs) are considered as the new generation of PFRs and include 2,2-bis(chloromethyl)-propane-1,3-diyltetrakis(2-chloroethyl) bisphosphate (V6), isodecyl diphenyl phosphate (iDDPHP), resor- cinol bis(diphenylphosphate) (RDP), bisphenol A-bis (diphenyl phosphate) (BDP) (Ballesteros-Gomez et al., 2016a,b; 2014; Fang et al., 2013). Both groups of PFRs are applied to a wide range of * Corresponding author. E-mail address: adrian.covaci@uantwerpen.be (A. Covaci). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Chemosphere journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chemosphere https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.12.132 0045-6535/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Chemosphere 196 (2018) 231e239