Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 48 (2023) 103898 2352-409X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Brass metallurgy in Urartu: Recent evidence from eastern Anatolia Ümit Güder a, b, * , Abdulkadir ¨ Ozdemir c , Marek Verˇ cík a a Charles University, Institute of Classical Archaeology, Prague, Czech Republic b Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung, Düsseldorf, Germany c Fırat University, Faculty of the Humanities, Art History Department, Elazı˘ g, Türkiye A R T I C L E INFO Keywords: Brass Zinc Urartu Anatolia Archaeometallurgy ABSTRACT Traditionally, the beginning of substantial and deliberate brass production through the cementation process has been placed to the Early Roman period. Sporadic early fnds have accordingly been considered to be the result of various experimentations by eastern Mediterranean metallurgists at least since the Late Bronze Age. Several Anatolian fnds, dated to the early frst millennium BC, that were made from zinc rich alloys have been inter- preted within this framework. In ancient Urartu, however, the mastery and application of advanced metal technologies of both casting and working of copper-alloys as well as blacksmithing are well documented. This study aims to provide a further understanding of this phenomenon by shedding light on the development of zinc metallurgy in eastern Anatolia based on recent fnds unearthed during the rescue excavations at Murat Tepe and Murat H¨ oyük in the Murat River basin in modern eastern Türkiye. In both cases the metal assemblages from stratifed contexts were analysed by the means of multiple archaeometallurgical methods. The results from portable XRF (pXRF), metallography, micro-hardness, scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDS) and Raman spectroscopy analyses have showed that zinc was intentionally used as an alloy additive in order to fabricate brass. Moreover, in one case, the chemical composition consisting of zinc (Zn), tin (Sn) and copper (Cu) was detected, which indicates different alloying practices for the production of different types of objects. These new observations raise further questions about the deliberate production and manufacturing of brass prior to the wide spread of this metal technology in the Roman period. 1. Introduction The frst mass production of brass, an alloy of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn), is attributed to the Early Roman period as evidenced by coinage from the ancient Anatolian regions of Bithynia, Phrygia and Pontus, dating to the beginning of the frst century BC (Smekalova, 2009; Craddock et al., 1980). Ancient Greek written sources, however, already described brass or Zn rich alloys in the seventh century BC as a valued and exotic material called oreichalcos, i.e. “mountain copper” (Hesiod- Shield of Herakles 122; Homeric Hymns 6,9). Later Classical to Roman period authors (Plato Critias 116b-c; Strabo 13.1.56) explicitly stated that brass was produced outside the ancient Greek world. Due to the precious status of this metal, considered second only to gold (Plato Critias 114b), jewellery and objects of great symbolic value were fabri- cated from it (Pseudo-Aristotle De Metallis, frg. 265). The archaeological evidence supporting this information is still very limited. The archaeological fnds of Zn-rich alloys from the second millennium BC (Craddock and Eckstein, 2003; Thornton et al., 2002; Schaeffer-Forrer et al., 1982) suggest that metallurgical experiments were conducted in the eastern Mediterranean, utilizing new types of ores (including Zn bearing minerals). While these fnds are numerous, they do not demonstrate a consistent production, suggesting that Zn alloyed Cu manufacturing may not have gone beyond the unique examples of experimental stages during this early period. Anatolia, however, seems to have yielded richer archaeological evidence for Zn rich alloys in the frst half of the frst millennium BC. Three fbulae found inside the Tumulus MM at Gordion in ancient Phrygia, dating to the eighth century BC, are composed of Cu with about 10% Zn, 6–16% Tin (Sn), and 2% Lead (Pb) (Young, 1981). An analysis of a contemporaneous bracelet unearthed in an Urartian palace at Çavus ¸tepe revealed a composition of 11.04% Zn, without any traces of Sn or Pb (Geçkinli et al., 1989). Further Urartian metalwork from the eighth and seventh centuries BC with a Zn content higher than 1%, include a bronze shield from Ayanis (Reindell and Riederer, 2003), a part of a furniture ftting from Top- rakkale (Hughes et al., 1981) and several artefacts in museums or pri- vate collections (Greiff et al., 2012; Güder et al., 2020; Riederer, 2002; * Corresponding author at: Charles University, Institute of Classical Archaeology, Prague, Czech Republic. E-mail address: umit.guder@ff.cuni.cz (Ü. Güder). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jasrep https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.103898 Received 1 September 2022; Received in revised form 30 January 2023; Accepted 13 February 2023