Citation: Abdelshafie, A.; Salah, M.; Kramberger, T.; Dragan, D. Repositioning and Optimal Re-Allocation of Empty Containers: A Review of Methods, Models, and Applications. Sustainability 2022, 14, 6655. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su14116655 Academic Editor: Maxim A. Dulebenets Received: 20 April 2022 Accepted: 26 May 2022 Published: 29 May 2022 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affil- iations. Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). sustainability Review Repositioning and Optimal Re-Allocation of Empty Containers: A Review of Methods, Models, and Applications Alaa Abdelshafie 1, *, May Salah 1 , Tomaž Kramberger 2 and Dejan Dragan 2 1 Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport, College of International Transport and Logistics, Alexandria 1029, Egypt; maysalah@aast.edu 2 Faculty of Logistics, University of Maribor, 3000 Celje, Slovenia; tomaz.kramberger@um.si (T.K.); dejan.dragan@um.si (D.D.) * Correspondence: alaa.gaber.mahmoud@aast.edu Abstract: Managing empty-container movements is one of the most challenging logistics problems in the shipping field. With the growth of global trade imbalance, the repositioning process has become necessary, immediately after emptying a container. The main contribution of this research paper is to enrich the most frequently used methods, models, and applications in the literature, for relaxing the empty-container-repositioning problem. The article presents practices that vary between organizational policies, technical solutions, and modelling applications. A review of optimization models has been used for comparisons, based on specified criteria, such as the time frame, inputs, outputs, scale of the project, and value. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) was applied through the online database Web of Science (WOS). It gives a comprehensive description of all the relevant published documents. On the basis of conducting a brief systematic review, future research opportunities have been determined, considering the emerging phenomena in container transport chains. Keywords: shipping industry; container-transportation management; empty-container repositioning; optimization methods 1. Introduction The shipping industry is considered the primary underpinning of the international economy. It contributes, significantly, to global trade, as it is the most efficient, safe, and friendly transport to move mass goods worldwide [1]. Consequently, more than 90% of world trade is carried by sea. In the middle of the twentieth century, containerization was a significant technological development in the shipping business. It has played an essential role in dramatically reducing the transport cost, which was so expensive before containerization [2]. Song and Dong [3] classified the container transportation chain into two categories: the supply chain of full containers and the supply chain of empty containers. The authors clarified that both supply chains are correlated with each other, as their operations belong to a unified transportation network with the same resources. They explained the container transport chain, since it starts when the shipping company takes empty containers from their depot to be loaded by the consignor. After loading the containers, they are loaded onto a vessel heading to the consignee’s destination, either by rail transport or road transport or a combination of both. The laden containers are unloaded at the consignee’s store and emptied to be ready for loading, picked up to be returned to empty depots, or returned to shortage ports for future demand [3]. The existence of empty containers in specific ports, terminals, or depots causes an increase in the operational cost. Additionally, it increases the traffic volume, presenting environmental and sustainability problems. Subsequently, decreasing the movement of empty containers does not only have an economic impact but also has an environmental effect; the less empty container movement there is, the less fuel consumption, resulting in Sustainability 2022, 14, 6655. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116655 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability