Ancient DNA and the genetic signature of ancient Greek manuscripts N. Poulakakis a, * , A. Tselikas b,c , I. Bitsakis d , M. Mylonas a,e , P. Lymberakis a a Natural History Museum of Crete, University of Crete, Knosos Av., P.O. Box 2208, 71409 Irakleio, Crete, Greece b National Bank of Greece Cultural Foundation (CF-NBG), P. Skouze st. 3, 10560 Athens, Greece c ‘‘ARETHAS’’ Institute e Mediterranean Research Institut for Palaeography, Bibliology and History of Texts, 8 Tsituri str., Chalandri Athens 15231, Greece d K. Palaiologou 6, 16232 Vyron, Athens, Greece e Department of Biology, University of Crete, Vassilika Vouton, P.O. Box 2208, 71409 Irakleio, Crete, Greece Received 4 January 2006; received in revised form 19 June 2006; accepted 20 June 2006 Abstract Determination of the species origin of historic objects is one of the common tasks of ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis. DNA recovered from archaeological and palaeontological remains allows going back in time and revealing the genetic signature of several human tools. Comparisons of this signature with DNA sequence from recent animals (wild and domestic goats) from several Mediterranean regions are expected to allow us to identify a geographical origin for the biological material used to produce the Greek parchment manuscripts. Here, we have realised an experiment based on which it is possible to recover DNA from ancient parchment fragments (three Greek parchment manuscripts of relatively recent age: 13th to 16th century AD). The analysis of the three Greek manuscripts has shown that most signature documents have goat-related sequences (Capra spp.). As demonstrated, DNA of animals whose skins furnished the parchment pages of ancient and medieval books may survive in that parchment, enabling not only to determine the species of the animal from which the skin had been taken, but moreover, it might even be possible to reconstitute the history of the herds from which they originated. Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Ancient DNA; Deamination; Greek manuscripts; Evolution 1. Introduction Animal skin parchment is one of the oldest substances used by human. Like rocks, sticks or other vegetable matter, people had access to animals and tried to put every piece of an animal to full use. Skins have been used for clothing, tools, and weapons. In historical times, another form of animal skin, parchment (pergamena in Latin), was an essential ‘‘vehicle’’ of cultural activity in Eurasia [2]. It is known that skins were used as writing surfaces as early as 2700 BC in the IV dynasty in Egypt. In an effort to stifle any possible challenge to the amassing of knowledge that was taking place in the famed libraries of Alexandria, the Egyptians banned the export of papyrus, which was the most common writing surface of the time. Parchment is a material for the pages of the codex, the manuscript book, made from fine sheepskin, goatskin or calf- skin. According to the historians, it was invented about the beginning of the 2nd century (Before Christ, BC), in Perga- mon, as a substitute for papyrus. Pergamon or Pergamum (modern day Bergama in Turkey) was a Greek city, in north- western Anatolia, 16 miles from the Aegean Sea, located on a promontory on the north side of the river Caicus (modern day Bakir), that became an important kingdom during the Hellenistic period, under the Attalid dynasty, 282e129 BC. Pergamon had a great library that rivaled the famous Library of Alexandria. As prices rose for papyrus, while the reed was overharvested towards local extinction in the Nile delta, Per- gamon ‘‘adapted’’ by increasing use of parchment. Though * Corresponding author. Molecular Systematic Lab, Natural History Museum of Crete, University of Crete, Knosou Av., P.O. Box 2208, 71409 Irakleio, Crete, Greece. Tel./fax: þ30 2810 324 366. E-mail address: poulakakis@nhmc.uoc.gr (N. Poulakakis). 0305-4403/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.06.013 Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (2007) 675e680 http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas