Appearance-based comments, body dissatisfaction and drive for muscularity in males Carly Nowell, Lina A. Ricciardelli * Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia Introduction Body image has received increasing attention over the last 20 years due to the association between body dissatisfaction and a range of physical and psychological health problems (Cash, 2004; Grogan, 2006). The current evidence indicates that a substantial percentage of males are dissatisfied with their bodies (Frederick et al., 2007; Thompson & Cafri, 2007; Vartanian, Giant, & Passino, 2001), however, their body image concerns differ from those typically reported by females. Unlike females who predominantly desire a thinner body (Tiggemann, 2006), evidence suggests that males desire a muscular physique, accompanied by minimal adipose tissue (i.e., body fat) (Cohane & Pope, 2001; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2003), a body shape known as the mesomorphic physique (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2005; Smolak & Stein, 2006). Further, the desire for muscularity appears to be predominantly associated with the upper torso (Hoyt & Kogan, 2001; Stanford & McCabe, 2005). Body dissatisfaction among males has been found to be associated with a range of unhealthy behaviors such as exercise dependence, extreme weightlifting, and perfor- mance enhancing drug use (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2004). Overall, these problems are related to the drive for muscularity, which is a perception of being underdeveloped together with an intense pursuit to increase muscle mass (Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004; Smolak & Stein, 2006). The prevalence of these unhealthy behaviors is relatively high, with the rate of anabolic steroid use in men found to be equal to the rate of bulimia, and greater than the rate of anorexia in females (Spitzer, Henderson, & Zivian, 1999). Olivardia et al. (2004) found that 27% of college males reported using either legal body-building supplements and/ or illegal drugs such as steroids to change their body. Additionally, Rash (2004) found that 25% of young adult males displayed excessive exercise behavior. These pro- blems have also been matched by an increase in clinically Body Image 5 (2008) 337–345 ARTICLE INFO Article history: Received 2 February 2008 Received in revised form 30 April 2008 Accepted 2 June 2008 Keywords: Body dissatisfaction Drive for muscularity Males Positive comments Negative comments Self-esteem ABSTRACT This study examined the role of positive and negative appearance-based comments on body dissatisfaction and drive for muscularity among young adult males. The direct and moderating effect of self-esteem were also investigated; and BMI, age, and social desirability were included as covariates. The participants were 214 males aged between 18 and 30 years. More frequent negative comments were associated with higher body dissatisfaction whilst more frequent positive comments were associated with lower body dissatisfaction. However, both frequent negative and positive commentary were associated with higher drive for muscularity. Self-esteem was also associated with both body dissatisfaction and the drive for muscularity, but it did not moderate that influence of either positive or negative messages. Longitudinal research is now needed to determine the directionality of these relationships. Further research is required to establish the contexts in which positive and negative messages are associated with body dissatisfaction and the drive for muscularity. ß 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. * Corresponding author at: School of Psychology, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125, Australia. Tel.: +61 3 92446866; fax: +61 3 92446858. E-mail address: lina@deakin.edu.au (L.A. Ricciardelli). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Body Image journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/bodyimage 1740-1445/$ – see front matter ß 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2008.06.002