The Evolution of the Arctic Submarine Captain Alfred S. McLaren USN (Ret) (Department of Geography, University of Colorado) i. INTRODUCTION. This paper examines the evolution of the arctic submarine and the ever-increasing scientific and commercial potential which have accom- panied this evolution over the past 340 years. It is a sporadic history of arctic submarine ideas, concepts and actual experiences with vessels at sea. It happens to be a history that is largely American, with important additions as a result of the experiences of the Germans, Soviets and the British, particularly during World War II. Finally, it is a history in which five early visionaries in particular stand out: Bishop John Wilkins of England; Jules Verne of France; Professor Anschutz-Kampfe of Germany; the submarine designer Simon Lake, of the United States — whose influence extended over four decades until well into the twentieth century; and Sir Hubert Wilkins of Australia. This paper will deal with the development of submarines specifically intended for polar expedition and under-ice operations and with actual submarine experiences in the Arctic environment whether or not the submarines were originally intended for such. Like so many other areas of technology and exploration, the progress of the arctic submarine has been far from systematic. The lessons and experiences from one generation have not always been passed on, or learned, by the next. The developments have in the main been discontinuous, and those by one nation or state were often not appreciated or incorporated into the thinking and designs of others, even those whose national interests lay in the polar regions. While this paper cannot remedy these oversights and historical discontinuities, it does systematically present what information is available. The author's observations on various developments and experiences are sometimes over and above the observations and conclusions that were drawn at a particular time in history. The author will not, in this paper, address many recent developments in submarine technology, which nevertheless are highly applicable to improved capabilities in the Arctic and contiguous marginal sea ice areas. Finally, it will be observed that throughout the history of arctic submarine development, technological capability often did not keep pace with vision. It is interesting to observe that today the opposite is very much the case: vision has not kept pace with technological capability. This is particularly true in regard to the development of a submarine for commercial purposes in the Arctic. 2. EARLY CONCEPTS. The basic concept of an arctic submarine, as well as the recognition of its potential for scientific and commercial advantage, is at least 33£ years old. It appears to have originated with a founder of the Royal Society of London, Bishop John Wilkins. In 1648 he published Mathematical Magic or, 380