Personality and Individual Diferences 172 (2021) 110594 Available online 17 December 2020 0191-8869/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Do time perspectives predict school performance beyond intelligence and personality? Joanna Rudzinska-Wojciechowska a , Jerzy Wojciechowski b, * , Maciej Stolarski b a Kozminski University, Centre for Economic Psychology and Decision Sciences, Jagiello´ nska 57/59, 03-301 Warsaw, Poland b University of Warsaw, Faculty of Psychology, Stawki 5/7, 00-183 Warsaw, Poland A R T I C L E INFO Keywords: Time perspective Balanced time perspective Intelligence Personality School performance Grade point average Exam results ABSTRACT Individual differences in time perspectives (TPs) have often been analyzed in the context of educational achievement. But most studies have focused solely on future orientations, and the roles of other temporal per- spectives have largely remained unexplored. Moreover, studies carried out to date have neglected the consid- erable overlap between TPs and personality. We provide an empirical analysis of the effects of TP dimensions on school performance as measured by junior high school fnal exam scores and high school frst term grade point average (GPA), using a sample of 216 Polish high school students. Students’ Future-Positive TP scores showed a signifcant positive correlation with their GPA, whereas inverse relationships with GPA were observed for Present-Hedonistic and Present-Fatalistic TPs. However, effects became nonsignifcant when intelligence and Big Five personality dimension scores were controlled. Increasing Present-Fatalistic TP scores predicted poorer exam scores, and controlling for personality and cognitive capacity did not make this effect redundant. Also, more balanced TPs predicted greater GPAs. Our results provide some insight into the role of TPs in school performance. They also highlight redundancy between TP dimensions and personality, emphasizing the necessity to consider such potential redundancy when considering various psychological and behavioral outcomes. 1. Theoretical overview Intelligence is a strong predictor of scholastic performance (e.g., Kriegbaum et al., 2018; Kuncel et al., 2004). A recent meta-analysis by Roth et al. (2015) showed the correlation between intelligence and school grades as being r = 0.44 (with a population correlation after correction of ρ = 0.54), and mixed intelligence tests and verbal intelli- gence tests yielded higher population correlations (respectively, ρ = 0.60 and ρ = 0.53) than nonverbal intelligence tests (ρ = 0.44). Per- sonality traits (usually the Big Five, McCrae & Costa Jr., 1997) have also proved to be indicators of academic performance, and have been shown to explain learning outcomes over and above intelligence (Bratko et al., 2006; Spengler et al., 2013). Results of meta-analyses (McAbee & Oswald, 2013; O’Connor & Paunonen, 2007) are consistent: Conscien- tiousness, Openness to Experience/Intellect and Agreeableness are positively related to academic performance. Importantly, Conscien- tiousness has been demonstrated to display the strongest and most consistent association with academic success, evidence on the educa- tional implications of the other Big Five traits being much less coherent. Importantly, previous studies demonstrated that the relationships of personality and intelligence often vary between different measures of school performance. Specifcally, personality was shown to be more important in predicting grades than results of achievement tests, whereas intelligence proved more important in predicting scores on tests (Borghans et al., 2016). One of the reasons that might explain those differences is that teachers while making decisions about school grades, evaluate not only student’s abilities but also their studiousness (Spengler et al., 2013). Another well-established correlate of academic performance is an individual’s time perspective (TP). The time dimension is important in explaining academic performance because one’s success in this domain requires long-term planning and comparisons of one’s present perfor- mance to more temporally-distant standards (Barber et al., 2009). The bulk of TP research in the educational domain has focused solely on people’s Future TP (FTP), which is defned as “the present anticipation of future goals” (Simons et al., 2004, p. 122). The temporal distance of one’s goals can vary from short to long, and, generally, a long FTP is positively related to various indices of academic success (Andriessen et al., 2006; de Volder & Lens, 1982; Peetsma & van der Veen, 2011) and more optimal learning patterns (see Husman & Lens, 1999 for an * Corresponding author. E-mail address: jerzy.wojciechowski@psych.uw.edu.pl (J. Wojciechowski). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Personality and Individual Differences journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110594 Received 21 July 2020; Received in revised form 6 November 2020; Accepted 6 December 2020