64 “[E]ver since the Baron of Rio Branco asserted his theory of symbolic power resources, Brazil’s foreign policy has operated under the assumption that the country will attain international standing through the mechanisms of soft power.” The Brazilian Soft Power Tradition MIRIAM GOMES SARAIVA O ver the past decade, amid growing inter- national fragmentation and declining US hegemony, Brazil has assertively expand- ed its participation in multilateral forums as part of a diplomatic strategy that envisions a reformulation of international institutions. At the same time, Brazil has also worked on building a leadership role within South America. These global and regional aims continue to shape the country’s use of soft power. Indeed, soft power—defined by the politi- cal scientist Joseph S. Nye Jr. as influencing the behavior of others via attraction or persuasion rather than coercion or payment—is nothing new in Brazil’s international dealings. Since the early 1900s, the nation has used such a strategy under different labels in conjunction with two beliefs central to its foreign policy: the need to build and assure Brazil’s autonomy in its development strat- egy and foreign policy choices, and the desire to raise its global political profile. In the early twentieth century, Brazil’s foreign minister—José Paranhos, the Baron of Rio Branco, whose ideas had a major impact on the country’s foreign policy—developed a realist internation- al theory based on national sovereignty and power. But he suggested that countries should defend their sovereignty and expand their relative power through both material and symbolic power resources. Rio Branco argued that, although mate- rial power resources are better known, symbolic ones offer a good way for countries with lim- ited means to attain greater international clout. Such symbolic resources could be obtained on a regional basis by fostering special relations with a rising global power (such as the United States at that time). Meanwhile, the formulation and articulation of foreign policy principles, which would guide the country’s behavior, could help boost its global standing and open new avenues for international action through persuasion. Throughout the twentieth century, other tactics were incorporated into this general approach— such as harnessing foreign policy to attract inputs for Brazilian industrial development; defending the self-determination of peoples (or states); and building an image of a unique nation whose size and other social and economic features make it suitable as a bridge between poorer countries and Western powers. This last “symbolic” power resource has gained priority in Brazil’s interna- tional policy strategies. During the period after 1945, Brazilian inter- national behavior was aligned not only with Pan-Americanism and the defense of the West- ern model, but also specifically with the United States. In the 1960s, however, Brazil started to abandon its aspiration of building a special rela- tionship with the United States, allowing for the rise of a policy known as universalism, based on receptiveness toward all countries, independent of their geographical location, regime type, or economic policy. This pattern of acting more as a global player set the course for forging or strengthening ties with countries outside the European and inter-Ameri- can system, and helped boost Brazil’s international standing. A broader array of partners gave Brazil greater autonomy in its approach to the hege- monic power in its hemisphere and more room for maneuver in its dealings with other powers. Although the basic principles behind Brazil’s use of soft power have remained intact over the years, its foreign policy has not been uniform. Even with universalism as a new benchmark for MIRIAM GOMES SARAIVA is an associate professor of interna- tional relations at Rio de Janeiro State University. Soft Power Revisited Fifth in a series Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/currenthistory/article-pdf/113/760/64/390030/curh_113_760_064.pdf by guest on 02 August 2020