Journal of African Earth Sciences 210 (2024) 105134 Available online 2 December 2023 1464-343X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Performance of early warning systems in mitigating food effects. A review Japhet Ringo a, b, * , Shadrack Sabai c , Anesi Mahenge c a School of Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Ardhi University, P.O. Box 35176, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania b Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Dodoma, P.O. Box 395, Dodoma, Tanzania c School of Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Ardhi University, P.O. Box 35176, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania A R T I C L E INFO Handling Editor: DR Damien Delvaux Keywords: Early warning Early warning systems Floods Flood effects Mitigation ABSTRACT Floods have major effects on the livelihoods of rural and urban communities in Africa. In order to lessen its effects, means for mitigating them have been developed, including the use of food Early Warning Systems (EWS) as a preparedness measure against food effects. However, there is little comprehensive documentation of the performance of food EWS in areas where foods occur frequently in Africa. This paper reviews the extent to which food EWS are contributing to the reduction of food effects in Africa. This review is important because it gives the reasons why people are affected even when warnings are in place. The review was aided by a literature survey from Scopus, Web of Science, and Science Direct engines. Through this review, it has been observed that people use traditional and modern systems to communicate food early warnings. The results indicate that upon receiving the early warnings from the aforementioned systems, people vacate the food-prone areas for safer places, cleaning water drainage systems and buildings, conducting evacuation training, preparing shelter centers, and forming food management committees. Furthermore, it was noted that those responses have been instru- mental in enhancing food security, reducing human injuries and deaths, and reducing damage and/or losses to properties. It is concluded that if people are informed ahead of time of the food, they can take more response measures to prepare themselves and reduce the food’s effects. Similarly, the ability of relevant national, local, and community institutions to understand, interpret, disseminate, and respond to food warnings is critical to the effectiveness of food early warning systems. 1. Introduction Floods are one of the most devastating disasters in many parts of the world (WMO, 2022; Samanda et al., 2023). Floods have engulfed some parts of the world on an annual basis, while others have been inter- mittent (Germ´ an et al., 2021). Floods caused by precipitation have occurred around the world as a result of unplanned urbanization (Samu and Kentel, 2018; Bushesha and Mbura, 2015; Sakijege et al., 2014), farming near rivers (Ringo et al., 2016), intense rainfall (Majo, 2022), and living on low-lying slopes (Hambati and Gaston, 2015). These causes imply that foods are a function of natural and anthropogenic factors in place and time. From African experience, foods have colossal effects not only on humans but also on their livelihood activities (Kihila, 2017; Arsum et al., 2021; Msabi, M., and Makonyo, 2020). Studies reveal that foods exac- erbate deaths, injuries, human displacement, and property damage (Rhubart and Sun, 2021). Additionally, Mugula and Mkuna (2016) went far in arguing that the occurrence of foods impedes the normal availability of food, shelter, water, and sanitation. Floods, according to Bushesha and Mbura (2015), have also separated families in some areas. In curbing the food effects, controlling measures have been mostly used to resist the effects of foods by raising the heights of house foun- dations, using protective walls and/or dykes, retroftting houses, and using sandbags, terraces, and embankments (Ringo et al., 2016; Chen et al., 2023; Houngue et al., 2023). Other activities include seasonal migration and food mapping (Munyai et al., 2021; Salaudeen et al., 2023). Of all these measures, little focus has been placed on food Early Warning Systems (EWS) as a preventive measure compared to remedi- ation measures, which have been mostly documented in Africa. The food EWS, through its components (food risk knowledge, monitoring and prediction, dissemination, and response capability), would assist African communities in adjusting and ensuring that life is sustained, principally before foods, as it is a preventive tool to reduce food effects more than remediation measures, which are often practically done during and after foods. Regarding its worthiness, there is little * Corresponding author. P.O. Box 395, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, The University of Dodoma, Tanzania. E-mail address: japhetelis@yahoo.com (J. Ringo). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of African Earth Sciences journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jafrearsci https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2023.105134 Received 2 June 2023; Received in revised form 15 August 2023; Accepted 24 November 2023