Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-023-01842-1 REVIEW Treatment and recycling of spent lithium‑based batteries: a review Sameer Al‑Asheh 1  · Ahmad Aidan 1  · Teeba Allawi 1  · Fatma Hammoud 1  · Humaid Al Ali 1  · Maha Al Khamiri 1 Received: 15 January 2023 / Accepted: 24 October 2023 © The Author(s) 2023 Abstract Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have a wide range of applications from electronic products to electric mobility and space explo- ration rovers. This results in an increase in the demand for LIBs, driven primarily by the growth in the number of electric vehicles (EVs). This growing demand will eventually lead to large amounts of waste LIBs dumped into landflls which can cause serious environmental problems. To reduce this environmental impact, the need for efcient recycling technology emerges. Furthermore, it has been proven that recycling waste LIBs consume less material and energy than producing new ones from virgin materials. Therefore, this paper aims to review diferent recycling technologies including hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, direct recycling, and precise separation. The review concludes that hydrometallurgy might be the most efcient method of recycling waste LIBs on an industrial scale. Keywords LIB · Recycling · Hydrometallurgy · Pyrometallurgy · Precise separation Abbreviations ANVIL Adhesion Neutralization via Incineration and Impact Liberation CAM Cathode active material CTR Carbothermic reduction Cyanex 272 Bis(2,4,4-trimethyl-pentyl) phosphinic acid D2EHPA Di(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid DEC Diethyl carbonate DMC Dimethyl carbonate EC Ethylene carbonate ECS Eddy current separator EMC Ethyl methyl carbonate EV Electric vehicle GHG Greenhouse gas HTMR High-temperature melting recovery LCO Lithium cobalt oxide LFP Lithium iron phosphate LIB Lithium-ion battery LMO Lithium manganese oxide NCA Nickel cobalt aluminum NMC Nickel manganese cobalt NMP N-methylpyrrolidone PC Propylene carbonate PTFE Polytetrafuoroethylene PVDF Polyvinylidene fuoride SEI Solid electrolyte interface STF Single tube furnace TBP Tributyl phosphate TFA Trifuoroacetate UHT Ultra-high-temperature smelting technology Introduction Recently, the demand for lithium-based battery-operated electronics, solar panels, e-scooters and, most importantly, electric vehicles (EVs), has increased. As a result, lithium- ion batteries (LIBs) are being consumed at an exponential rate and are becoming a necessary raw material for many industries. If used batteries are not treated properly, they will create a massive amount of environmental waste which would be difcult to handle. This has been the interest of environmentalists who have investigated diferent methods to recycle such LIBs and, thus, reduce their damage to the environment. Despite the diferent uses of LIBs, EVs have the most prominent demand because their carbon footprint over their entire lifetime is far less impactful on the envi- ronment than that of an engine-driven car. Additionally, unstable oil prices, relatively low maintenance costs and better performance are other factors that contributed to the * Sameer Al-Asheh sslasheh@aus.edu 1 Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, College of Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE