Energy Policy 34 (2006) 138–150 User-led innovations and participation processes: lessons from sustainable energy technologies Michael Ornetzeder a,Ã , Harald Rohracher b a ZSI - Centre for Social Innovation, Linke Wienzeile 246, A-1150 Vienna, Austria b IFF/IFZ - Inter-University Research Centre for Technology, Work and Culture, Schlo¨gelgasse 2, A-8010 Graz, Austria Abstract In this paper we will pose the question whether a higher level of user participation could be used as a strategy to improve the development and dissemination of sustainable energy technologies. We will especially focus on user-led innovation processes with a high involvement of individual end-users. In our argument we will draw on several case studies in the field of renewable energy technologies—in particular solar collectors and biomass heating systems—and sustainable building technologies. Users in these case studies were involved in the design or planning processes, sometimes in a very selective way and with limited influence, sometimes very active and for quite a long period of time. Especially in the case of renewable energy technologies self-building groups were highly successful and resulted in improved and widely disseminated technologies. Based on the empirical results of our case studies we will critically discuss the potential of user involvement (especially in self- building groups) for the development and promotion of sustainable energy technologies and outline technological and social pre- conditions for the success of such approaches. r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: User-led innovations; Sustainable energy technology; Constructive technology assessment 1. Introduction Discussion about the promotion of energy efficiency and renewable energy carriers is usually split into several compartments:  behavioural changes, focusing on the individual consumer of energy and his/her consumption deci- sions, attitudes and the practices of using energy consuming devices (using CFLs, switching off devices instead of stand-by mode, etc.);  technological change, focusing on the development and use of sustainable energy technologies (e.g. energy-efficient washing machines, biomass heating systems);  institutional change, focusing on regulatory measures, norms, energy taxes, etc. (often addressed as ‘social or institutional barriers’ also). In our paper, we will concentrate on a specific way of linking these levels and investigate a number of cases where the collaboration of users of energy technologies has not only contributed to a wider dissemination but also to technological development and product innovation. Users in our case studies have been organised within self-building and planning groups and therefore have been involved not only with behavioural questions but also with technolo- gical problems and institutional conditions. Without doubt, self-building is a strategy which will only activate a limited number of prospective users, even if there was an extraordinary diffusion success in the solar case (we will ARTICLE IN PRESS www.elsevier.com/locate/enpol 0301-4215/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2004.08.037 Ã Corresponding author. Tel.: +43-1-4950-442-54; fax: +43-1-4950- 442-40. E-mail addresses: ornetzeder@zsi.at (M. Ornetzeder), rohracher@ ifz.tu-graz.ac.at (H. Rohracher).