Abdominal depth and waist circumference as influential determinants of human female attractiveness ☆ James K. Rilling a,b,c,d, ⁎ , Torrey L. Kaufman a , E.O. Smith a , Rajan Patel e , Carol M. Worthman a a Department of Anthropology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA b Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA c Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA d Division of Psychobiology, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA, USA e Department of Biostatistics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA Initial receipt 6 September 2007; final revision received 28 August 2008 Abstract Previous research based largely on two-dimensional (2D) line drawings and picture stimuli has established that both body mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) influence the perceived attractiveness of human female bodies. Here, we extend these studies by (1) creating a more ecologically valid stimulus set consisting of 3D videos and 2D still shots from real female “models” rotating in space, and (2) measuring and examining the influence of several additional anthropometric variables that previously have not been considered. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that the depth of the lower torso at the umbilicus, or abdominal depth, and waist circumference were the strongest predictors of attractiveness, stronger than either BMI or WHR. Women with shallow abdominal depth and small waist circumference are more likely to be healthy and nonpregnant, suggesting that this may be an adaptive male preference that has been shaped by natural selection. Leg length was a consistent positive predictor of attractiveness, perhaps because it has been correlated with biomechanical efficacy or healthy prepubertal growth that is unhindered by nutritional or energetic deficiency. Our results show that conclusions regarding anthropometric predictors of attractiveness are influenced by the visual perspective of the perceiver, as well as the anthropometric variables considered for analysis. © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Anthropometry; Attractiveness; Waist-to-hip ratio 1. Introduction The association among physical attraction, mate choice and reproduction has prompted investigators to suggest that an understanding of physical attractiveness requires an evolutionary perspective that considers the likely selection pressures that shaped human mate choice (Gangestad & Scheyd, 2005; Singh, 2002). From this perspective, attrac- tiveness should be related to fitness. Accordingly, males are expected to evaluate attractiveness of potential female mates on the basis of several criteria, including genetic quality, health, fertility and availability of resources to sustain pregnancy and lactation. It has been argued that the ratio of waist-to-hip circumfer- ence is inversely related to health and fertility (Singh, 2002), as well as the availability of critical fat reserves needed to sustain fetal and infant brain development (Lassek & Gaulin, 2006, 2008). This has led to the hypothesis that men evolved preferences for female mates with low waist-to-hip ratios (WHR) (Singh, 1993). Initial investigations of this hypothesis presented participants with a group of line drawings of figures that varied in both weight and WHR, and asked them to choose which of the figures is most attractive (Singh, 1993). Men from a wide range of societies consistently express a preference for low WHR figures among women of normal body weight (Singh, 2002). Although these results appeared to support the hypothesis that men find low WHRs attractive, these initial studies were not without limitations. First, within the same Evolution and Human Behavior 30 (2009) 21 – 31 ☆ This study was supported by the Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Emory University and by an Emory College seed fund grant to JKR. ⁎ Corresponding author. Department of Anthropology, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 1557 Dickey Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA. Tel.: +1 404 727 3062; fax: +1 404 727 2860. E-mail address: jrillin@emory.edu (J.K. Rilling). URL: http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTJR/ labhome1.html. 1090-5138/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.08.007