Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 52 (2023) 104214 2352-409X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Big cats from prehistoric ˙ Izmir: A paleontological approach to zooarchaeological material Alper Yener Yavuz a , Ahmet ˙ Ihsan Aytek a, * , Erhan Tarhan b , Zafer Derin c a Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Department of Anthropology, ˙ Istiklal Campus, 15030 Burdur, Turkey b Hitit University, Department of Anthropology, ˙ Ikbalkent Campus, 19040 Çorum, Turkey c Ege University, Department of Archaeology, Bornova, 15040 ˙ Izmir, Turkey A R T I C L E INFO Keywords: Panthera leo Panthera pardus Yes ¸ilova H¨ oyük Yassıtepe H¨ oyük Zooarchaeology Morphometric ABSTRACT The species Panthera has always held special signifcance in the archaeological record because of its scarcity and symbolic meaning in ancient societies. In Anatolian archaeology, these animals are present in assemblages from the Early Neolithic to the Iron Age. Furthermore, there is evidence that leopards still live-in modern-day Ana- tolia. Although Panthera remains are present at different archaeological sites spanning multiple periods in Anatolia, an in-depth study of these bones has yet to be completed. In this study, we present the case of a distal humerus of from Neolithic period layers at Yes ¸ilova H¨ oyük, and three mandible fragments from the Bronze Age layers at Yassıtepe H¨ oyük. Our detailed morphological and metric analysis indicates that the humerus can be attributed to a lion (Panthera leo) and the mandible fragments to two male individuals of the leopard species (Panthera pardus). In addition to presenting new data on the genus Panthera in ancient Anatolia, we also aim to offer a new perspective to zooarchaeology studies using detailed morphological and metric data of faunal ele- ments in the archaeological record. 1. Introduction The Anatolian peninsula is a natural land-bridge that connects Af- rica, Asia, the Middle East, and Eurasia, allowing for the migrations of terrestrial biota for millions of years. Its unique geographic location is hospitable for human groups and has also been an important area for endemic faunal evolution (Aytek and Harvati, 2016; Licht et al., 2022). One of these endemic species is a subspecies of leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana). Although the question of whether the leopard species currently resides in Anatolia is fraught, a few examples from different regions in Anatolia discovered in the last 10 years provide clues about its residence patterns (Karatas ¸ et al., 2021; Sarı et al., 2020; Spassov et al., 2016; Toyran, 2018). Recently, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry announced that camera traps recorded Panthera pardus in eight different provinces in Anatolia throughout 2022 and 2023. Although the ministry doesn’t state the exact spots because of security reasons, camera traps from Southwestern Turkey clearly refute the idea that leopards provi- sionally enter the Anatolia from Iran and suggest that Panthera pardus resides permanently in Turkey (Bas ¸kaya et al., 2022). Unlike leopards, there is less evidence arguing for lions residing in either ancient or modern-day Anatolia. The most recent evidence of lions (Panthera leo) in ancient Anatolia dates to the late Middle to early Late Bronze Age (von den Driesch and Boessneck, 1981; Berthon, 2011). Although some remains from Iron Age levels in Kilise Tepe were attributed to Panthera leo, the authors declared that further verifcation was needed (Baker, 2008). Therefore, clear dates for the last lions in Anatolia can be attributed to the Bronze Age. The occurrence in modern-day Turkey is not as well-known as Pan- thera pardus, but Kasparek (1986) argues that a small population could have survived in Southern Turkey until 1840. The main reason for this rarity of big cats was the increase in human populations and expansion of their settlements. Nevertheless, people hunted leopards in Turkey as late as the 20th century in order to protect themselves and their domesticated herds. It is said that Turkish hunter Hasan Bele (e.g., Mantolu Hasan) hunted nearly 15 leopards between 1930 and 50 (Derin, 2017). Today, the leopard is offcially under pro- tection in Turkey. The oldest Panthera remains comes from the Middle Pleistocene levels of Yarımburgaz Cave ( ˙ Istanbul) (Howell, 2010). Panthera remains from Yarımburgaz Cave were classifed as Panthera leo spp. and Panthera sp. indet. The other Middle Pleistocene Panthera remains were found in Karain Cave (Antalya). Today, there are no data regarding the * Corresponding author. E-mail address: aytek@mehmetakif.edu.tr (A. ˙ I. Aytek). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jasrep https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.104214 Received 27 April 2023; Received in revised form 23 August 2023; Accepted 14 September 2023