EXPERT REVIEW Biomedical Imaging: Principles, Technologies, Clinical Aspects, Contrast Agents, Limitations and Future Trends in Nanomedicines Justine Wallyn 1 & Nicolas Anton 1 & Salman Akram 1 & Thierry F. Vandamme 1 Received: 14 November 2018 /Accepted: 11 March 2019 # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019 ABSTRACT This review article presents the state-of-the-art in the major imaging modalities supplying relevant information on patient health by real-time monitoring to establish an accurate diagnosis and potential treatment plan. We draw a comprehen- sive comparison between all imagers and ultimately end with our focus on two main types of scanners: X-ray CT and MRI scan- ners. Numerous types of imaging probes for both imaging tech- niques are described, as well as reviewing their strengths and limitations, thereby showing the current need for the develop- ment of new diagnostic contrast agents (CAs). The role of nano- particles in the design of CAs is then extensively detailed, reviewed and discussed. We show how nanoparticulate agents should be promising alternatives to molecular ones and how they are already paving new routes in the field of nanomedicine. KEYWORDS contrast agent . magnetic resonance imaging . medical imaging . nanomedicine . x-ray imaging ABBREVIATIONS 2D 2-Dimension 3D 3-Dimension API Active principle ingredient CA Contrast agent CNS Central nervous system CT Computed tomography DDS Drug delivery system DEs Dendrimers EPR Enhanced permeability and retention FDA Food and drug administration GI Gastrointestinal HDL High-density lipoprotein HU Hounsfield unit IONPs Iron oxide nanoparticles LDL Low-density lipoprotein LPs Liposomes LPPs Lipoproteins NCs Nanocarriers NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance NPs Nanoparticles MRI Magnetic resonance imaging PAMAM Poly(Amidoamine) PCL Poly(ε-Caprolactone) PEG Poly(Ethylene Glycol) PLA Poly(Lactic Acid) PLGA Poly(Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid) PET Positron emission tomography PO Poly(Propylene Oxide) RES Reticuloendothelial system ROI Region of interest SPECT Single-photon emission computed tomography SPIONs Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles USPIOs Ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide VLDL Very low-density lipoprotein NONINVASIVE IMAGING MODALITIES: FROM PRINCIPLES TO PREVALENT TECHNIQUES Diagnostic by Imaging Techniques The noninvasive diagnostic field has seen outstanding prog- ress due to the development of advanced imagers. Owing to computing power growth, current imaging techniques aim at * Nicolas Anton nanton@unistra.fr 1 Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, CAMB UMR 7199 F-67000 Strasbourg, France Pharm Res (2019) 36:78 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11095-019-2608-5