Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal for Nature Conservation journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jnc The longleaf pine forest: Long-term monitoring and restoration of a management dependent ecosystem Angela M. Holland ⁎ , Brandon T. Rutledge, Steven B. Jack, Jonathan M. Stober 1 Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center, 3988 Jones Center Drive, Newton, GA 39870, USA ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Longleaf pine system Pinus palustris Ecological restoration Long-term ecological monitoring Forest management ABSTRACT Conservation and restoration of biodiversity and ecosystems is increasingly important due to negative impacts caused by expanding human populations, changing land use, and climate change. Understanding drivers of system processes supports efcient restoration and successful conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems. We describe a long-term forest monitoring program established as a component of a long-term ecological monitoring approach and used in conjunction with adaptive management to actively restore a longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) system. Eight panels of 108 monitoring points were selected within our 11,740 ha study area near Newton, GA, USA using a Random Tessellation Stratifed design with hierarchical randomization. Each year two panels were sampled, resulting in a complete survey of all points every four years. To date, data have been collected over four sampling intervals (2002–2017). Collected data included basic forestry measurements and quantifcation of understory conditions. For an initial analysis of the data, we calculated estimates and error of average volume, change in volume, mortality, diameter distribution, and ingrowth. Additionally, we compared efects of man- agement practices, which varied between plots, on these estimates. The tree volume on the study area is com- prised primarily of longleaf pine with ∼80% of this volume from trees ≥34 cm DBH. Pine tree volume increased by 13.29 ( ± 2.03) m 3 /ha between Intervals 1 and 4. Pine mortality during each sample interval was relatively stable over the study period, 2.98 ( ± 0.39) - 4.56% ( ± 0.58), and primarily attributed to timber harvest. Management activities resulted in increased longleaf pine ingrowth and reduced hardwood volume. Our analyses indicate that through our management actions we have successfully made progress towards achieving our overall restoration goals for the site. Data collected from the long-term monitoring program were also used to provide information for scientifc studies regarding water conservation in longleaf pine systems and wildlife- habitat relationships. As monitoring progresses, collected data will be used to assess progress and guide further restoration using adaptive management and dynamic reference models. 1. Introduction Conservation and restoration of biodiversity and ecosystems is in- creasingly important due to negative impacts caused by expanding human populations, subsequent changes in land use, and climate change. Understanding what drives system processes is necessary for efcient restoration and successful conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems. Systems may require management for conservation or re- storation and understanding how management activities afect system processes will aid in achieving conservation and restoration goals (Fancy & Bennetts, 2012). Long-term monitoring, dynamic reference models, and adaptive management are all methods used in the conservation and restoration of systems and populations (Fancy & Bennetts, 2012; Hiers et al., 2012; Walters & Holling, 1990). These methods allow for increased under- standing of system processes and more efcient management. One of the benefts of long-term monitoring data is the potential to understand drivers of ecological processes and phenomena that occur over long temporal scales, including distinguishing between anthropogenic and natural changes (Lindenmayer & Likens, 2010b; Magurran et al., 2010; Possingham, Fuller, & Joseph, 2012; Smith, Purcell, & Barimo, 2007). Additionally, long-term monitoring can be used as a warning system to detect unusual conditions, potential concerns, or unwanted changes in resources (Bennetts et al., 2007; Lindenmayer & Likens, 2010b). Despite the utility of long-term monitoring programs, many fail due to lack of support, collaboration, adaptability, and scientifc productivity https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2018.11.006 Received 26 July 2018; Received in revised form 30 October 2018; Accepted 16 November 2018 ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: angela.holland@jonesctr.org (A.M. Holland). 1 Present address: Shoal Creek Ranger District, 45 AL Hwy 281, Hefin, AL 36264, USA. Journal for Nature Conservation 47 (2019) 38–50 1617-1381/ © 2018 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. T