Original Article Polar Bear Attacks on Humans: Implications of a Changing Climate JAMES M. WILDER, 1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Marine Mammals Management, 1011 E. Tudor Road, Anchorage, AK 99503, USA DAG VONGRAVEN, Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Center, N-9296 Tromsø, Norway TODD ATWOOD, U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Road, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA BOB HANSEN, 2 Government of Nunavut, Igloolik, NU X0A 0L0, Canada AMALIE JESSEN, Government of Greenland, Department of Wildlife and Agriculture, P.O. Box 269, 3900 Nuuk, Greenland ANATOLY KOCHNEV, Russian Academy of Sciences, Far East Branch, Institute of Biological Problems of the North, Mammals Ecology Lab, 18 Portovaya Street, 685000 Magadan, Russia GEOFF YORK, Polar Bears International, PO Box 3008, Bozeman, MT 59772, USA RACHEL VALLENDER, Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada, 351 St. Joseph Boulevard, Gatineau, QC K1A 0H3, Canada DARYLL HEDMAN, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, Northeast Region, Box 28, Thompson, MB R8N 1N2, Canada MELISSA GIBBONS, Wapusk National Park and Manitoba North National Historic Sites, Parks Canada, Box 127, Churchill, MB R0B 0E0, Canada ABSTRACT Understanding causes of polar bear (Ursus maritimus) attacks on humans is critical to ensuring both human safety and polar bear conservation. Although considerable attention has been focused on understanding black (U. americanus) and grizzly (U. arctos) bear conflicts with humans, there have been few attempts to systematically collect, analyze, and interpret available information on human-polar bear conflicts across their range. To help fill this knowledge gap, a database was developed (Polar Bear-Human Information Management System [PBHIMS]) to facilitate the range-wide collection and analysis of human- polar bear conflict data. We populated the PBHIMS with data collected throughout the polar bear range, analyzed polar bear attacks on people, and found that reported attacks have been extremely rare. From 1870–2014, we documented 73 attacks by wild polar bears, distributed among the 5 polar bear Range States (Canada, Greenland, Norway, Russia, and United States), which resulted in 20 human fatalities and 63 human injuries. We found that nutritionally stressed adult male polar bears were the most likely to pose threats to human safety. Attacks by adult females were rare, and most were attributed to defense of cubs. We judged that bears acted as a predator in most attacks, and that nearly all attacks involved 2 people. Increased concern for both human and bear safety is warranted in light of predictions of increased numbers of nutritionally stressed bears spending longer amounts of time on land near people because of the loss of their sea ice habitat. Improved conflict investigation is needed to collect accurate and relevant data and communicate accurate bear safety messages and mitigation strategies to the public. With better information, people can take proactive measures in polar bear habitat to ensure their safety and prevent conflicts with polar bears. This work represents an important first step towards improving our understanding of factors influencing human-polar bear conflicts. Continued collection and analysis of range-wide data on interactions and conflicts will help increase human safety and ensure the conservation of polar bears for future generations. Ó 2017 The Wildlife Society. KEY WORDS attacks, climate change, conflicts, conservation, management, PBHIMS, polar bear, predatory, Ursus maritimus, wildlife. Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) have evolved to exploit the biologically productive Arctic sea ice niche by using it as a platform to prey upon marine mammals (Amstrup 2003). Before European exploration, this habitat specialization likely kept them separated from most people, and thus helped reduce human-bear conflicts. However, the extent of human-polar bear interactions began to change in the sixteenth century with the advent of widespread maritime exploration. Historical records provide some insight into the nexus between human and bear behavior and help inform current efforts to reduce human-polar bear conflict. Received: 26 August 2016; Accepted: 22 May 2017 1 E-mail: james_wilder@fws.gov 2 Consultant, Living with Wildlife Specialist, PO Box 386, Tofino, BC V0R 2Z0, Canada. Wildlife Society Bulletin; DOI: 10.1002/wsb.783 Wilder et al.  Polar Bear Attacks on Humans 1