Current significant challenges in the decommissioning and environmental remediation of radioactive facilities: A perspective from outside the nuclear industry V. Gil-Cerezo * , E. Domínguez-Vilches, A.J. Gonz  alez-Barrios C atedra Enresa at Universidad de C ordoba, Departamento de Bot anica, Ecología y Fisiología Vegetal, C atedra de Medio Ambiente-Universidad de C ordoba, Edificio Paraninfo, Universidad de C ordoba, 14071 C ordoba, Spain article info Article history: Received 6 September 2016 Received in revised form 28 January 2017 Accepted 13 February 2017 Keywords: Socioenvironmental conflict Nuclear facility Radioactive waste Public participation Environmental mediation abstract This paper presents the results of implementing an extrajudicial environmental mediation procedure in the socioenvironmental conflict associated with routine operation of the El Cabril Disposal Facility for low- and medium- activity radioactive waste (Spain). We analyse the socio-ethical perspective of this facility's operation with regard to its nearby residents, detailing the structure and development of the environmental mediation procedure through the participation of society and interested parties who are or may become involved in such a conflict. The research, action, and participation method was used to apply the environmental mediation procedure. This experience provides lessons that could help improve decision-making processes in nuclear or radioactive facility decommissioning projects or in environ- mental remediation projects dealing with ageing facilities or with those in which nuclear or radioactive accidents/incidents may have occurred. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction: background and perspective Eurobarometers of radioactive waste management (European Commission, 1998, 2001, 2007, 2008) are proof of the rejection of and social controversy generated by nuclear facilities and radioac- tive waste management. They also make it clear that it would be convenient to earn trust and social acceptance for these facilities as a fundamental requirement for solving this environmental problem (Taylor and Webster, 2004; Alonso, 2006; Vila d‘Abadal et al., 2005). They show that concern for the safety risks involved with radio- active waste is widespread in countries with and without nuclear power plants (COFIS, 2000; IP/10/478, 2010). In addition, there is also a concern that transcends national boundaries that leads to 82% of European citizens having the opinion that the management of nuclear facilities and projects should be regulated at the EU level (European Commission, 2010). At the national level, the residents of cities that have or are near a nuclear facility or in which there are plans to implement an environmental remediation or decommissioning plan exhibit be- haviours that are not easy to quantify, particularly those related to emotions (Leiva, J.J., 2007). This situation leads to defensive atti- tudes among the population when faced with situations that may change their normal life routines, affect their safety, or involve the assumption of risks that may exceed the benefits of sharing their local environment with a nuclear or radioactive facility. Spain has a long experience with management of environmental remediation and decommissioning operations related to nuclear and radioactive activities, and these operations were technically successful. The Vandell os I nuclear power plant, located in the town of Vandell os i l'Hospitalet de l'Infant (Tarragona), began commer- cial operations in 1972 and was closed in 1989 due to a fire in the turbine area that was classified as level 3 (“serious incident”) on the INES scale. 1 Although this accident did not cause any radioactive emissions to the environment, it was decided to close the plant because the technical requirements involved in re-commissioning it were too expensive for Hifrensa, the operating company. Enresa, 2 the agency responsible for management of radioactive waste in Spain, decommissioned the plant between 1998 and 2003, making it the first nuclear power plant to undergo the process in * Corresponding author. E-mail address: victoria.gil@uco.es (V. Gil-Cerezo). 1 INES is the acronym for the International Nuclear Events Scale (Escala Inter- nacional de Sucesos Nucleares). 2 www.enresa.es/esp/. Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Environmental Radioactivity journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvrad http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2017.02.011 0265-931X/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 171 (2017) 200e211