Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Child Abuse & Neglect journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chiabuneg Online child sexual exploitation and abuse: A community diagnosis using the social norms theory Laurie S. Ramiro ⁎ , Andrea B. Martinez, Janelle Rose Tan, Kachela Mariano, Gaea Marie Miranda, Greggy Bautista University of the Philippines Manila, Philippines ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Online child sexual abuse and exploitation Social norms Philippines ABSTRACT This study focused on the drivers of online child sexual exploitation and abuse (OCSEA) among Filipino children and youth, with emphasis on community norms. An ethnographic qualitative study was conducted in two communities in MetroManila that are considered “hotspots” for child sexual abuse. One hundred and forty-four (144) males and females from various age groups served as key informants. Political officials, Internet shop managers, professionals and police officers were also interviewed. Non-participant observations and mapping were used to provide context regarding OCSEA in the communities.The results revealed that OCSEA was committed online by heterosexual and same sex attracted men in their 40s–50s. The usual victims were girls aged 13–17 years, although boys were also noted. The victims came from poor families and were out-of-school. The various forms of online activities leading to OCSEA included sexual chatting, showing of child sex photos and live videos as well as sextortion. The online transactions were usually initiated by the peer group and some enablers. In general, online sexual activities were perceived as “normal” among young people, although regarded as “disgusting”. Online sex ac- tivities had become a source of “easy money” for the child and family. They were perceived as not harmful because of anonymity and the absence of any actual physical contact. People in the community tolerate these online practices and do not report the incidence to authorities. The effects on children and youth were predominantly social and psychological, albeit perceived as economically beneficial. Some preventive and mitigating actions were recommended to curb the incidence of OCSEA in the communities. 1. Introduction Young people of today are highly influenced by the digital age. In fact, the Internet has opened a new platform wherein young people could initiate divergent activities from the confines of their computer desks (O’Connell, 2004). For instance, the Internet can be used to search for new information about any issue of interest that could widen the intellectual horizon of the youth. It can provide leisurely activities through online games and friendly conversations. Despite these benefits, however, the Internet can be harmful as it has provided a new medium for online addiction, limited face-to-face socialization, and worse, the commission of online child sexual exploitation and abuse (OCSEA). Various types of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) - facilitated OCSEA have been documented. These include virtual- or text-based online dialogues that are sexually suggestive and video-based, sometimes leading to cyberprostitution (Doring, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104080 Received 18 April 2018; Received in revised form 26 June 2019; Accepted 9 July 2019 ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: lsramiro@up.edu.ph (L.S. Ramiro). Child Abuse & Neglect 96 (2019) 104080 0145-2134/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. T