Vol.:(0123456789) Sports Medicine https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0992-3 REVIEW ARTICLE Over 50 Years of Researching Force Proﬁles in Rowing: What Do We Know? John Warmenhoven 1 · Stephen Cobley 1 · Conny Draper 1 · Richard Smith 1 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 Abstract There has been substantial interest in the mechanisms underpinning the skilled movements of on-water rowing for more than 150 years. Contemporary attention from biomechanical research has focused on the important relationship between kinetics (such as force application at the oar) and performance. A range of instrumentation systems have been developed and used in both academic and applied training contexts to better understand this relationship. Both qualitative and quantitative analytical approaches have been used in conjunction with these instrumentation systems for observing diﬀerences in propulsive force patterns between rowers. Despite the use of these analytical approaches, there is still limited consensus surrounding which characteristics of force proﬁles are associated with better rowing performance. Newell’s model of constraints is provided as a framework for understanding why this lack of clarity exists surrounding force proﬁle characteristics and performance. Further to this, direction for further research is provided by a framework that outlines two main streams: (1) exploration of constraints and how they are related to force proﬁle characteristics; and (2) after controlling for constraints, exploration of performance and how it is related to force proﬁle characteristics. These two steps are sequential, with an understanding of constraints inﬂuencing how we understand the interaction of force proﬁles and performance. Key Points Diﬀerent constraints (organismic, task and environmen- tal) that impinge on the rower are likely to inﬂuence characteristics of force proﬁles and contribute to diﬀer- ences identiﬁed between rowers. Performance in rowing can be evaluated from a multi- dimensional perspective. This should be acknowledged when exploring how force proﬁle characteristics are related to performance. The relationship between constraints or performance on force proﬁle characteristics should be explored in conjunction with relevant mechanical frameworks to rationalize the results of experimental ﬁndings. 1 Background The rowing action has been referred to as a cyclical whole- body movement [1]. The upper and lower limbs work simul- taneously to apply force to the oar(s) that, together with the reaction force on the oar blade, provides the propulsion nec- essary for boat movement. The motion of the rowing stroke cycle is divided into two phases, drive and recovery. In an on-water setting, these phases are deﬁned using horizontal angular displacement of the oar (see Fig. 1) [2]. The drive phase begins with the catch, when the minimum oar angle is reached and the blade begins entry into the water. The drive phase ends with the release (or ﬁnish), when the maximum oar angle is reached and the blade exits the water. The recov- ery phase starts at the release, and ends at the next catch. The primary aim of the drive phase is to achieve large amounts of mechanical work that contribute directly to boat propulsion. At international competition level there are two main types of rowing: sculling (boats where each crew member uses two oars) and sweep rowing (boats where each crew member uses one oar). The main performance metric for these types of rowing is the time taken to move a boat translationally over a pre-determined competition distance, which is typically 2000 m [3]. These competition times are * John Warmenhoven john.warmenhoven@hotmail.com 1 Exercise and Sports Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Cumberland Campus, 75 East Street, Lidcombe, NSW 2141, Australia