Journal of Applied Geophysics 227 (2024) 105437 Available online 1 July 2024 0926-9851/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies. Advancing archaeo-geophysics through integrated informational-probabilistic techniques and remote sensing Lev V. Eppelbaum a, b, * , Olga Khabarova a , Michal Birkenfeld c a Department of Geophysics, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel b Azerbaijan State Oil and Industry University, Azadlig Ave. 20, Baku AZ1010, Azerbaijan c Dept. of Archaeology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er-Sheva, Israel A R T I C L E INFO Keywords: Geophysical tools Information criteria Bayes estimation Remote Sensing Machine learning Integrated technologies Archaeological survey ABSTRACT Recent studies demonstrate the effectiveness of integrated archaeo-geophysical tools in resolving various geological-environmental challenges. This involves combining geophysical methods in archaeological fieldwork or remote sensing methods for preliminary survey and analysis of archaeological sites, potentially enhanced by machine learning techniques to estimate object shapes and characteristics. This study highlights the potential of employing informational and probabilistic approaches as optimal tools for evaluating and integrating critical information for archaeological research. Our proposed procedure for assessing the reliability of tools or toolsets is based on improved methodologies utilizing conditional probability, which were suggested in previous authors’ publications. We illustrate examples of combining remote sensing, known for its low cost, portability, and effectiveness in initial archaeological site identification, with machine learning methods to locate and discover new sites in archaeologically well-studied areas in Israel. Subsequently, we conduct an informational assessment of remote sensing data and propose steps to correlate this data with other geophysical information probabilistically. 1. I. Introduction Geophysical methods have seen a surge in their application in archaeology over the past decade, owing to their broad spectrum of uses in archaeological research that go beyond mere detection of buried structures (e.g., Gaffney, 2008; Eppelbaum, 2009, 2011, 2015; Deroin et al., 2012; Getaneh et al., 2018; Zeid et al., 2017; Zeid et al., 2017; Manataki et al., 2021; Martorana et al., 2023; Perez-Rodriguez et al., 2023; Bianco et al., 2024). These techniques can help conserve human and financial resources in archaeology by precisely identifying and delineating locations that necessitate excavation and, at times, even predicting the shape and material of the objects that will be unearthed. The most used geophysical methods have practical applications, such as electrical resistivity surveys, magnetic field surveys, seismic refraction surveys, and ground-penetrating radar (GPR). For instance, electrical resistivity surveys can outline subsurface features based on resistivity variations influenced by moisture content, compaction, and material composition. Besides identifying walls and cavities, they can aid in mapping ancient land use patterns, detecting buried pathways, and assessing soil fertility in ancient agricultural sites. Magnetic field surveys, primarily used to detect magnetic susceptibility variations, can also reveal subtle changes in soil composition indicative of human ac- tivity. This method is valuable for mapping ancient settlements, iden- tifying buried kilns or hearths, and tracing ancient roads or pathways based on magnetic anomalies caused by burned materials or metal ar- tifacts. Seismic refraction surveys can assist in outlining subsurface stratigraphy and identifying buried geological features that may impact human settlement patterns. GPR produces detailed subsurface images by sending radar pulses into the ground and recording reflections from buried features. In addition to locating structural remains, GPR can identify changes in soil stratigraphy, detect buried artifacts, and char- acterize ancient landscapes, such as natural and human-made channels or buried geological formations. Integration of geophysical techniques with other survey methods, such as an analysis of data obtained from photogrammetry, satellite images, and LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), often called “remote sensing” (RS), can additionally enhance archaeological investigations by providing complementary datasets for accurate mapping, visualization, and interpretation of landscape features associated with archaeological sites. It has been noted in the articles cited above that those * Corresponding author at: Department of Geophysics, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel. E-mail address: levap@tauex.tau.ac.il (L.V. Eppelbaum). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Applied Geophysics journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jappgeo https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2024.105437 Received 3 May 2024; Received in revised form 17 June 2024; Accepted 20 June 2024