Vol.: (0123456789) Water Air Soil Pollut (2024) 235:586 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-024-07408-7 Heavy Metal Contamination in Soils, Water, and Food in Nigeria from 2000–2019: A Systematic Review on Methods, Pollution Level and Policy Implications Adefarati Oloruntoba · Ahmed Olalekan Omoniyi  · Zainab Abidemi Shittu · Rasheedat Oluwaseun Ajala · Sunday Adebayo Kolawole Received: 13 October 2022 / Accepted: 31 July 2024 © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 Abstract Heavy metal pollution is a silent killer and has become a pervasive issue in various regions worldwide, particularly within developing nations such as Nigeria. This study undertook a thorough examination of 120 scholarly articles published from 2000 to 2019, aimed at evaluating the prevalence of heavy metal pollution in soils, aquatic environ- ments, and food sources including crops, meat, and dairy products. Methodologies employed for sample collection and metal quantification were critically assessed, alongside an extensive discussion on the concentrations, sources, and levels of contamination observed. The investigation revealed elevated concen- trations of cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), and arsenic (As) across all examined locales, with average metal concentrations surpassing World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture Organiza- tion (WHO/FAO) guidelines for soil. Furthermore, higher metal concentrations were detected in sur- face and well waters, whereas borehole groundwa- ters were relatively pollution-free. Analysis of food crops, meat, and milk demonstrated metal concentra- tions exceeding WHO/FAO standards across all urban areas studied. Contrary to expectations of lithogenic toxicity, the primary sources of contamination were identified as anthropogenic, stemming from dump- sites, landfill sites, mining operations, runoff and seepage from automotive repair workshops, petro- leum hydrocarbon spills, and effluents from industrial plants. The geo-accumulation index (Igeo) analysis revealed significant soil contamination with Fe and Cd, classified under extremely serious and moderate contamination levels, respectively. This comprehen- sive review highlights the necessity for viable and clear policy interventions to mitigate heavy metal pollution and advocates for the rigorous monitoring and control of industrial activities. Keywords Heavy metals · Environmental contamination · Geo-accumulation index · Industrial emissions · Anthropogenic sources Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi. org/10.1007/s11270-024-07408-7. A. Oloruntoba (*)  Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary T2N 1N4, Canada e-mail: oloruntobaadefarati@gmail.com A. O. Omoniyi (*) · Z. A. Shittu · S. A. Kolawole  Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Abuja, Abuja, Nigeria e-mail: omoniyia@veritas.edu.ng A. O. Omoniyi  Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences, Veritas University, Abuja, Nigeria R. O. Ajala  Department of Crop, Soil and Pest Management, Federal University of Technology Akure, Akure, Nigeria