  Citation: Yew, W.C.; Kong, S.M.; Awang, A.H.; Yi, G.R. Developing a Conceptual Model for the Causal Effects of Outdoor Play in Preschools Using PLS-SEM. Sustainability 2022, 14, 3365. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su14063365 Academic Editors: Aleksandra Klašnja-Mili´ cevi´ c and Mirjana Ivanovi´ c Received: 8 January 2022 Accepted: 11 March 2022 Published: 13 March 2022 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affil- iations. Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). sustainability Article Developing a Conceptual Model for the Causal Effects of Outdoor Play in Preschools Using PLS-SEM Wong Chin Yew 1, *, Sia Mal Kong 2 , Abd Hair Awang 1 and Goh Rou Yi 2 1 Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, National University of Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia; hair@ukm.edu.my 2 Faculty of Built Environment, Tunku Abdul Rahman University College, Kuala Lumpur 53300, Malaysia; siamk@tarc.edu.my (S.M.K.); carolynn6080@gmail.com (G.R.Y.) * Correspondence: vivienyew@ukm.edu.my Abstract: This study attempts to establish the causal effects of outdoor play through a conceptual model consisting of six latent constructs. Seventy Penang preschool operators took part in a question- naire survey conducted from June to July 2021. All of the 70 respondents agreed that outdoor play is important for children’s development even though only 62 respondents implemented outdoor play yards in their preschools. Raw data from these 62 respondents were used to develop the conceptual model by PLS-SEM. Measurement models were assessed by checking the indicator reliability, internal consistency reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity. The structural model was assessed by checking the SRMR and NFI. The measurement models are found to be acceptable with AVE > 0.50 for all of the constructs and all of the 34 indicators have loadings > 0.50. However, there are 16 indicators with difference between loadings < 0.10, and the structural model does not have a good fit with SRMR > 0.10 and NFI < 0.90. Lack of discriminant validity could be remedied by removing eight indicators with difference between loadings < 0.10. Model fit could be improved with larger sample size since bootstrapping with 1000 iterations yielded SRMR = 0.098 at 95% for the saturated model. Seven significant paths were found among the six constructs in the final conceptual model. Keywords: childcare; early childhood education; outdoor play; preschool education; PLS-SEM 1. Introduction Studies show that early childhood education’s major goal is to help children achieve normal physical and mental development while also preparing them for formal educa- tion [1,2]. A plethora of evidence suggests that when children interact with others, they learn more than when they do not. Children learn more when they are engaged in a learning task rather than becoming distracted. Furthermore, when learning material is directly tied to their lives or related to something they already know, rather than presented abstractly and out of context, children learn more successfully [3–5]. Children, in particular, derive these learning experiences from their play experiences, which provide them with opportunities to interact with the built environment [6]. Outdoor play, in particular, provides unique learning and development opportunities in early childhood education. Outdoor play also aligns with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child in that it allows children to play, experience nature, and, in the long run, help to alleviate global sustainability concerns. Indoor and outdoor play areas must be regarded as equally valid learning environments in early childhood education. Outdoor play and learning in early childhood education is a multifaceted topic that includes everything from children’s well-being and physical skills to risk management and play- space design to immersion in natural outdoor settings and teachers’ outdoor pedagogies and dispositions [7]. In a study on the importance of outdoor play at preschool, researchers [8] emphasize that outdoor play should not become overly academic or overly controlled by teachers. Sustainability 2022, 14, 3365. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14063365 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability