Indian Journal of Medical Ethics Published online first on November 12, 2022 [1] COMMENT Ethics of the use of dead human bodies in anatomy teaching in India SRIVIDYA SREENIVASAN, V SREENIVASAN ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Abstract The study of the human anatomy predominantly requires the  use of remains of the dead. Unclaimed bodies are easily  available in India; however, there is a lack of clear ethical  guidelines governing their transport and exchange. We raise  pertinent questions about the ethical implications of using  unclaimed bodies in teaching anatomy, their transport, transfer  and storage, ethical and legal issues regarding the voluntary  donation of bodies and dry human bones, as well as the  commercial aspects of body donation. We also examine  existing practices in anatomy departments in India, and explore  the available legal safeguards. We detail practical and ethical  challenges in the existing practices and safeguards and  attempt to provide solutions. Keywords: anatomy teaching, body donation programme,  ethics, informed consent, procurement of cadaver In the 1820’s William Burke and William Hare murdered 16 individuals in Edinburgh, Scotland, and sold the corpses to Dr Robert Knox, an anatomist, for purposes of anatomical dissection [1]. Though anatomists have come a long way since then in the manner of procurement of cadavers, the use of unclaimed bodies for purposes of anatomical dissection is prevalent even today [2]. Ethical dilemmas arising in the use of unclaimed bodies in teaching Anatomy Consent cannot be obtained for the dissection and preparation of museum specimens if unclaimed bodies are used for these purposes. This violates one of the basic principles of ethics, ie, autonomy. Some may argue that the state is responsible for the interment of unclaimed bodies [3], and therefore, can assign the bodies to a recognised medical institute for dissection [4]. Here, the principle of common good overrules the principle of autonomy of the dead individual. From an ethical point of view, schools have the option not to accept unclaimed bodies for dissection. In this case, they would be rejecting material that is readily available and permitted by law for use in medical education and research. While this might protect the autonomy of the dead, it also means a lack of cadavers for dissection, especially in those regions that face an acute shortage of voluntarily donated bodies. However, as Beauchamp states, “method in ethics begins with the moral convictions that inspire the highest confidence and that appear to have the lowest level of bias” [5]. Most unclaimed bodies sourced for dissection belong to those from the marginalised sections of society [6]. Using them for the purpose of anatomical dissection thus comes with inbuilt bias. Hence, although Anatomy Acts, which are opt-in laws, permit the use of unclaimed bodies for anatomical dissection [4], the practice does not conform to the high standards of ethics that Indian medical colleges should strive to achieve. Ethical and legal issues related to voluntary donation of bodies The Maharashtra Anatomy Act, 1949, permits a request to donate their body or a part of it, expressed by a person in writing or orally in the presence of two or more witnesses, during the former’s last illness that resulted in death [4]. There is no provision in the Act for a healthy individual to pledge their body for voluntary donation. Further, relatives of the deceased may be unwilling to donate the body despite the individual having consented. This presents a conflict between the autonomy of the deceased individual, and the rights of ownership of the dead body by the next of kin. From a legal point of view, as per the provisions of the Maharashtra Anatomy Act, Section 5B, the next of kin has a right to refuse to donate the body if: a) They have reason to believe that consent given by the deceased was subsequently withdrawn. b) A near relative of the deceased objects to the body being so dealt with. c) The person in lawful possession of the body believes there is need for an inquest or a post mortem [4]. Most body donation registration forms have a “no objection Authors: Srividya Sreenivasan (corresponding author — srividyasreenivasan@yahoo.com), Associate Professor, Department of Anatomy, DY Patil University, School of Medicine, Navi Mumbai, 400706, INDIA; V  Sreenivasan (drsreenivenkat@gmail.com), Principal, Bharati Vidyapeeth Dental College, CBD Belapur, Navi Mumbai, 400 614, INDIA. To cite: Sreenivasan S, Sreenivasan V. Ethics of the use of dead human bodies in anatomy teaching in India. Indian J Med Ethics. Published online first on November 12, 2022. DOI: 10.20529/IJME.2022.084 Manuscript Editor: Olinda Timms Peer Reviewers: Two anonymous reviewers Copyright and license ©Indian Journal of Medical Ethics 2022: Open Access and Distributed under the Creative Commons license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits only non-commercial and non-modified sharing in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.