Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Environmental Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman Research article Achieving water security in rural Indian Himalayas: A participatory account of challenges and potential solutions Sudeshna Maya Sen, Arun Kansal ∗ Coca-Cola Department of Regional Water Studies, TERI School of Advanced Studies, 10 Institutional Area, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi, 110 070, India ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Problem and solution trees Stakeholder perceptions Climate change adaptation Sikkim agriculture Springshed management Cultural identity ABSTRACT The complex and diverse factors that influence water security in the Indian Himalayan Region were examined using problem and solution tree (PAST) mapping together with a field study. Five PASTs, each constructed by a different group of stakeholders, namely the state government, the local government, researchers, development agencies, and the local community, were analysed to obtain a holistic and multi-sectoral understanding of water security in the region, and the analysis was supplemented with field data. The systematic study helped in (1) identifying many factors – climatic, geographical, cultural, and socio-economic – that influence water security, (2) assessing their impacts on mountain livelihoods, and (3) documenting thirty-two potential interventions in the form of adaptations (e.g. springshed management programme) and coping strategies (e.g. buying water from informal water markets) to strengthen water security. These strategies followed three main themes namely conserving water resources, improving rural livelihood and sustainable infrastructure development and risk management. The study also helped in building a shared sense of understanding, purpose, and action between the diverse groups of stakeholders. The study suggests that ensuring water security in rural mountain areas requires holistic and multi-sectoral policies, which should be developed by including all actors in the network of stakeholders; that local conditions be given utmost importance in the policy planning cycle (e.g. focus on springs in mountains); and that cultural landscape and local identities be closely examined to reduce the inequalities in access to resources. 1. Introduction About 80% of the world's population faces some form of water in- security (Vorosmarty et al., 2010), which often hinders the attainment of goals related to food, energy, and health security (Singh, 2017) be- sides affecting regional security (Pomeranz, 2013) and environmental sustainability (Bakker, 2012). Achieving water security has therefore become an important part of international policy documents (e.g. Millennium Development Goal 7C and Sustainable Development Goal 6). The Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH) are considered the ‘water tower of Asia’ (Immerzeel et al., 2010) and collectively serve 47% of the world's population water supply requirement (Pomeranz, 2013). Yet, communities living within the HKH suffer from seasonal water scarcity and water-induced disasters (Vaidya, 2015). Those living in rural areas are more vulnerable because their economy and livelihoods depend heavily on sectors such as agriculture, in which water plays a critical role (Vaidya, 2015). Inequities in access to water are more evident in rural areas: globally 84% and 72% rural dwellers lack secure access to improved drinking water and sanitation facilities (WHO/UNICEF 2012). Such inequities often arise from, and are influenced by, the local socio-economic, cultural, and political landscape (Drew and Rai, 2016). These inequities are now being exacerbated because of climate change and rapid urbanization, and the balance between the flows of water, food, and environmental resources becomes increasingly precarious (Immerzeel et al., 2010). Water security is governed by many factors from hydrology (water availability) to socio-economic conditions (water infrastructure, economy, socio-politics, and culture) and by future changes (climate change and measures to adapt to that change) (Grey and Sadoff, 2007; Bakker and Morinville, 2013) and by complex interactions between these factors. Achieving water security for mountain communities re- quires inputs not only from quantitative modelling of water systems but also from local stakeholders including local communities, who en- counter water insecurity and water management problems on a daily basis (El Ayni et al., 2012). Often local actions by these different sta- keholders can have a significant impact on the water resources of an entire region. Similarly, regionwide actions by the state (e.g. building a dam for hydropower) can influence the water security of local https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.05.132 Received 24 December 2018; Received in revised form 8 April 2019; Accepted 27 May 2019 ∗ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: akansal37@gmail.com, akansal@terisas.ac.in (A. Kansal). Journal of Environmental Management 245 (2019) 398–408 0301-4797/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. T