Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Ecological Indicators journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolind Can forest fragmentation and configuration work as indicators of human–wildlife conflict? Evidences from human death and injury by wildlife attacks in Nepal Krishna Prasad Acharya a,b, ⁎ , Prakash Kumar Paudel c , Shant Raj Jnawali d , Prem Raj Neupane b , Michael Köhl b a Department of Forests, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal b University of Hamburg, World Forestry, Leuschnerstr 91, D-21031 Hamburg, Germany c Center for Conservation Biology, Kathmandu Institute of Applied Sciences, PO Box 23002, Kathmandu, Nepal d Hariyo Ban Program, WWF Nepal, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Asiatic elephant Bengal tiger Fragmentation Human wildlife conflict Leopard Nepal Rhinoceros Zero-inflated regression ABSTRACT Fragmented forests and heterogeneous landscapes are likely to have less natural vegetation and smaller core areas, a low degree of landscape connectivity, high prevalence of anthropogenic edges, and high landscape heterogeneity, which may alter—at varying degrees—behavior of wildlife species such as attacks on humans. We evaluated whether or not forest fragmentation (e.g. shape, size and distribution of forest patches measured as landscape shape index, effective mesh size, and landscape heterogeneity), habitats (proportion of bush and grassland, distance to water sources), and human disturbances (human population density) have a significant relationship with frequencies of human deaths and injuries by Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), common leopard (Panthera pardus), one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) and Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus). Data on human injury and death were obtained from a national survey over five years (2010–2014). The relationship between wildlife attacks and landscape attributes were investigated using a zero-inflated Poisson regression model. Attacks by tigers were significantly and positively associated with forest fragmentation (effective mesh size which is high in a landscape consisting of disconnected small patches). Attacks by common leopards were strongly positively related with landscape heterogeneity, and negatively related to the proportion of bush and grassland. Attacks by one-horned rhinoceros were positively significantly related to the distance to water sources, and proportion of bush and grassland in the landscape. Attacks by elephants were strongly and positively associated with the forest fragmentation (landscape shape index, which increases as patches in the landscapes becomes disaggregated). These results suggest that forest fragmentation is inevitably a critical driver of human–wildlife conflicts, although the extent of effects varies depending on species specific habitat requirements. 1. Introduction Large mammals play important roles in the forest ecosystems mostly by maintaining prey populations and seed dispersal (Berger et al., 2001; Tanner, 1975). They are regarded as keystone species of ecosystems (Caro, 2010; Roberge and Angelstam, 2004; Williams et al., 2000). Forest fragmentation and deforestation lead to loss of core forest areas, disruption of dispersal ability of wildlife in their home ranges, and deterioration of quality habitats by different means such as frequent forest fire and invasion by alien flora and fauna, etc. (Bennett, 1990; Laurance et al., 2000; Lehmkuhl and Ruggiero, 1991). Furthermore, forest loss and degradation bring wildlife into human proximity and cause confrontation because both wildlife and humans compete for shared resources (Distefano, 2015; Woodroffe et al., 2005). Conse- quently, wildlife raid crops, damage property and kill humans. The subsequent aggressive actions by humans result in further escalation of conflict, including retaliatory killings of wildlife (Distefano, 2015; Michalski et al., 2006; Woodroffe et al., 2005). Bengal tiger Panthera tigris tigris (Linnaeus, 1758), common leopard Panthera pardus fusca (Meyer, 1974), Asiatic one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis (Linnaeus, 1758) and Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus (Linnaeus, 1758) are top ranked conflict animals in Nepal in http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.04.037 Received 7 January 2017; Received in revised form 9 April 2017; Accepted 14 April 2017 ⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Forests, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal. E-mail addresses: dgdof@dof.gov.np, kpacharya1@hotmail.com (K.P. Acharya). Ecological Indicators 80 (2017) 74–83 1470-160X/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. MARK