Exploring the validity of a teachers’ self-efficacy scale in five countries Robert M. Klassen a, * , Mimi Bong b , Ellen L. Usher c , Wan Har Chong d , Vivien S. Huan d , Isabella Y.F. Wong d , Tasos Georgiou e a University of Alberta, Department of Educational Psychology, 6-102 Education North, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2G5 b Department of Education, Korea University, Anam-dong, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-701, Korea c Educational and Counseling Psychology, University of Kentucky, 249 Dickey Hall, Lexington, KY 40506-0017, USA d Psychological Studies Academic Group, National Institute of Education, 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616 e Corner Thoucydides and Kimon, 1434 Nicosia, Cyprus article info Article history: Available online 1 October 2008 Keywords: Self-efficacy Teachers International Cross-cultural Motivation Job satisfaction Canada Cyprus Korea United States Singapore Validity abstract The purpose of this article was twofold. The first purpose was to test the validity of the Teachers’ Sense of Self-Efficacy Scale (TSES) in five settings—Canada, Cyprus, Korea, Singapore, and the United States. The second purpose was, by extension, to establish the importance of the teacher self-efficacy construct across diverse teaching conditions. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis was used to better understand the measurement invariance of the scale across countries, after which the relation- ship between the TSES, its three factors, and job satisfaction was explored. The TSES showed convinc- ing evidence of reliability and measurement invariance across the five countries, and the relationship between the TSES and job satisfaction was similar across settings. The study provides general evi- dence that teachers’ self-efficacy is a valid construct across culturally diverse settings and specific evi- dence that teachers’ self-efficacy showed a similar relationship with teachers’ job satisfaction in five contrasting settings. Ó 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Teachers across the world face a host of new and ongoing de- mands resulting from increasing workloads, shifting policies and expectations, and societal changes. The beliefs teachers hold about their capabilities to face these challenges play a strong role in influ- encing student learning and teachers’ job commitment (Tschan- nen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001). In recent years, teachers’ self- efficacy (TSE)—beliefs teachers hold that they can positively influ- ence student learning—has been shown to demonstrate a profound influence on the daily lives of teachers and their students. Although considerable research has shown that TSE has a strong influence on teachers and students, few studies have explored the validity of TSE across groups of teachers from different settings. In particular, international comparisons provide researchers with new knowl- edge about the universality and generalizability of important psy- chological constructs, and allow future investigations to include the newly validated constructs in a more diverse range of settings (e.g., Marsh & Hau, 2004). The purpose of the present investigation is to test the validity of a TSE measure across teaching levels (elementary/middle school and secondary) in five countries repre- senting three geographically and culturally contrasting regions: North America (Canada and the United States), East Asia (Korea and Singapore) and Europe (Cyprus). 1.1. Teachers’ self-efficacy According to Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory, self-effi- cacy beliefs refer to individuals’ beliefs about their capabilities to successfully carry out a particular course of action. Considerable research supports the claim that self-efficacy is an important influ- ence on human achievement in a wide variety of settings, including education, health, sports, and work (Bandura, 1997). In educational contexts, research has shown that students’ self-efficacy plays an important role in influencing achievement and behavior, but there is increasing evidence that teachers’ sense of self-efficacy also plays a key role in influencing important academic outcomes. Teachers’ self-efficacy is related to higher levels of student achievement and student motivation, and has been shown to influence teachers’ instructional practices, enthusiasm, commitment, and teaching behavior (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001; Wolters & Daugherty, 2007). Teachers with low levels of self-efficacy experience more difficulties with student 0361-476X/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.08.001 * Corresponding author. Fax: +1 780 492 1318. E-mail address: robert.klassen@ualberta.ca (R.M. Klassen). Contemporary Educational Psychology 34 (2009) 67–76 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Contemporary Educational Psychology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cedpsych