Legal and Social Contexts and Mental Health Among Lesbian and Heterosexual Mothers Danielle N. Shapiro, Christopher Peterson, and Abigail J. Stewart University of Michigan This study examines the role of legal and social context (the level of legal and social support offered by one’s country of residence) and sexual orientation in the mental health of lesbian and heterosexual mothers. Participants were sampled from the United States and Canada because the two countries have many similarities (North American location, reliance on English language, and democratic structures) but provide different legal and social rights to their lesbian citizens. The study included 52 lesbian mothers and 153 heterosexual mothers in the United States and 35 lesbian mothers and 42 heterosexual mothers in Canada. Although there were no differences between heterosexual mothers as a function of legal and social context, lesbian mothers from the United States reported more family worries about legal status and discrimination (but not more general family worries) and more depressive symp- toms than did lesbian mothers in Canada. Results indicate that legal and social context moderates the role of sexual orientation in maternal mental health. Keywords: lesbian parenting, depression, legal context, social context In the United States, there are 1,138 federal provisions available only to couples with a marriage license (Pawelski et al., 2006). Lesbian and gay parents, who do not have access to marriage in most states, accordingly do not have access to these many benefits and protections. As a result, families headed by gay men and lesbians face significant challenges in the United States. These concerns are of substantial importance given the number of lesbian- and gay-headed families living in the United States. According to the estimates of the U.S. Census Bureau and other schol- ars, there are between 300,000 and 500,000 American households headed by same-sex female couples (Suter, Daas, & Bergen, 2008) and about 333,000 households headed by same-sex male couples (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). More than one third of lesbian and one fifth of gay male couples are currently raising children (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000), yet do so in a legal and social context that is unsupportive, if not hostile. Despite the growing number of lesbian families in the United States, relatively little is known about how legal and social context in general, and the American legal and social context in particular, affects the mental health of lesbian mothers. Although these effects are certainly relevant for households headed by gay fathers, the smaller number of these families makes it difficult to examine their experiences. Most research on lesbian families has addressed the psy- chosocial health of the children raised in these households. This growing body of research has suggested that children raised by lesbian mothers are largely indistinguishable from their peers on most measures of social adjustment and psychological health (Fulcher, Chan, Raboy, & Patterson, 2002; Patterson, 2006; Wainright, Russell, & Patterson, 2004). Where there are differences, they either favor the children of lesbian and gay parents or are a direct result of a stigmatizing social environment, not parental sexual ori- entation (Stacey & Biblarz, 2001). Additionally, researchers have examined lesbians’ parenting abilities and have con- sistently found them to match those of heterosexual moth- ers. Despite misconceptions, lesbian parents are not more likely to sexually, physically, or psychologically abuse their children (Jenny, Roesler, & Poyer, 1994; Patterson, 2005). On the basis of such research, the American Academy of Pediatrics released an official statement declaring that chil- dren are not harmed by lesbian or gay parents and offering its support for legislation advocating gay and lesbian par- enting (Committee on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family Health, 2002). Shortly after, in 2004, the American Psychological Association issued their official resolutions and amicus briefs, which also asserted that lesbian and gay parents are as effective at parenting as heterosexual parents (American Psychological Association, 2005). Considerable research has shown that lesbians are effec- tive parents who raise healthy children. What is often ig- nored is that lesbian parents successfully raise their children in a legal and social climate that is unsupportive of their efforts. American lesbian mothers have not been granted Danielle N. Shapiro, Christopher Peterson, and Abigail J. Stewart, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan. We thank our research participants and the Gender and Person- ality in Contexts research group. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Danielle N. Shapiro, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 2248 East Hall, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. E-mail: danielleshapiro@umich.edu Journal of Family Psychology © 2009 American Psychological Association 2009, Vol. 23, No. 2, 255–262 0893-3200/09/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0014973 255