Shachaf, P., & Horowitz, S. (2006). Are virtual reference services color blind? Library & Information Science Research, 28(4), 501-520. Are virtual reference services color blind? Pnina Shachaf and Sarah Horowitz School of Library and Information Science, Indiana University, 1320 East 10th Street, LI005A, Bloomington, IN 47405-3907, USA. shachaf@indiana.edu Abstract This study reports an experiment that examines whether librarians provide equitable virtual reference services to diverse user groups. The relative absence of social cues in the virtual environment may mean greater equality of services though at the same time greater inequalities may arise as librarians can become less self-aware online. Findings indicate that the quality of service librarians provide to African Americans and Arabs is lower than the quality of service they provide to Caucasian, Hispanic, Asian, and Jewish students. This study adds to the knowledge of subjective bias in the virtual environment by specifying those that are discriminated against online, identifying the kinds of discriminatory actions of virtual reference librarians, and identifying the type of queries that more frequently result in unbiased service. 1. Introduction Virtual reference, which allows users to connect easily with librarians online, is becoming highly popular. Librarians answer thousands of questions every day over the Internet (Coffman & Arret, 2004). Although the service is maturing much more research is still needed. In particular, there is a need to gain a better understanding of the role of virtual reference in providing services to diverse and cross-cultural user groups (Shachaf, Hara, Meho, Kwon, Li, Sakai, & Lankes, 2005). This research gap is now becoming more important with the increased numbers of diverse and non-traditional students attending colleges and universities. Today more than ever minorities and international students attend higher education institutions in North America (Curry & Copeman, 2005, Whitmire, 1999 and Whitmire, 2003). These diverse user groups are making growing use of library and reference services (Curry & Copeman, 2005, Liu & Redfern, 1997, Whitmire, 1999, Whitmire, 2003 and Zoe & DiMartino, 2000). They use the academic library heavily (African American students use the library more than White students) and request more assistance in searching databases (non-native English speakers compared with native English speakers) (Whitmire, 1999, Whitmire, 2003 and Zoe & DiMartino, 2000). They may also heavily use virtual reference services. The provision of online reference services, specifically via e-mail, enables users who were uncomfortable approaching a librarian in person to submit anonymous questions to a virtual reference service (Coffman, 2003). Likewise, certain user groups do not come to the library due to physical disabilities, scheduling constraints, or geographical distance.