MINI REVIEW Toward effective nature conservation on farmland: making farmers matter Geert R. de Snoo 1,2 , Irina Herzon 3 , Henk Staats 4 , Rob J.F. Burton 5 , Stefan Schindler 6,7 , Jerry van Dijk 8 , Anne Marike Lokhorst 9 , James M. Bullock 10 , Matt Lobley 11 , Thomas Wrbka 6 , Gerald Schwarz 12 , & C.J.M. Musters 1 1 Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands 2 Centre for Ecosystem Studies, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands 3 Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, Helsinki, Finland 4 Institute for Psychological Research, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB Leiden, the Netherlands 5 Centre for Rural Research, N-7491 Trondheim, Norway 6 Department of Conservation Biology, Vegetation & Landscape Ecology, University of Vienna, Rennweg 14, A-1030 Vienna, Austria 7 CIBIO, Centro de Investigac¸˜ ao em Biodiversidade e Recursos Gen ´ eticos, Campus Agr ´ ario de Vair ˜ ao, Universidade do Porto, 4485–661 Vair ˜ ao, Portugal 8 Department of Innovation and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80115, 3508 TC Utrecht, the Netherlands 9 Communication Strategies, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 8130, 6700 EW Wageningen, the Netherlands 10 Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Benson Lane OX10 8BB Wallingford, United Kingdom 11 Centre for Rural Policy Research, University of Exeter, Rennes Drive EX4 4RJ Exeter, United Kingdom 12 Johann Heinrich von Th ¨ unen Institute, Institute of Farm Economics, Bundesallee 50, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany Keywords Agri-environment scheme; AES; biodiversity on farmland; farmers behavior; benchmarking biodiversity; noneconomic instruments. Correspondence C.J.M. Musters, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands. Tel: +31 71 527 5618; fax: +31 71 527 7434. E-mail: musters@cml.leidenuniv.nl Received 12 June 2012 Accepted 21 September 2012 Editor Andras Baldi doi: 10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00296.x Abstract Until now the main instrument to counteract the loss of biodiversity and land- scape quality in the European countryside has been agri-environment schemes (AES), which offer short-term payments for performing prescribed environ- mental management behaviors. In our opinion this approach is, in its current set-up, not a sustainable way of enhancing biodiversity and landscape quality. Here we will argue that conservation in agricultural areas is also a social chal- lenge. To change farmers’ behaviors toward more sustainable conservation of farmland biodiversity, instruments should aim to influence individual farmer’s motivation and behavior. We should aim to place farmland biodiversity “in the hands and minds of farmers.” Introduction The agri-environmental programme of the European Union is the key policy tool for achieving environmental protection in agricultural landscapes, including the maintenance of biodiversity in Europe. The need for such protection will increase with a growing demand of food production in Europe (Benton et al. 2011). The EU’s agri-environment schemes (AESs), part of the Common Agricultural Policy, pay farmers to manage their land for the benefit of particular habitats and species. The average annual expenditure 2007–2013 from the European Agri- cultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) is €3.3 billion (http://enrd.ec.europa.eu/policy-in-action/rural- development-policy-in-figures/rdp-monitoring- indicator-tables/financial-and-physical-indicators/en/ financial-and-physical-indicators˙en.cfm). Despite con- siderable financial resources and scientific and adminis- trative efforts put into the development, planning, and implementation of AESs, a controversy exists concerning their outcomes. Some studies criticize AESs as having at Conservation Letters 0 (2012) 1–7 Copyright and Photocopying: c  2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 1