Short communication Human disease hinders anti-poaching efforts in Indian nature reserves Nandini Velho a,b,1 , Umesh Srinivasan a , N.S. Prashanth c , William F. Laurance b,⇑ a National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bangalore 560 065, India b Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science (TESS) and School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland 4870, Australia c Institute of Public Health, Bangalore 560 085, India article info Article history: Received 18 March 2011 Received in revised form 25 May 2011 Accepted 4 June 2011 Available online xxxx Keywords: India Malaria Pakke Tiger Reserve Park management Poaching Protected areas abstract Where hunting pressure is high, anti-poaching efforts are often crucial for protecting native wildlife pop- ulations in nature reserves. However, many reserves suffer from inadequate support and provisioning of staff, especially in developing nations. In Pakke Tiger Reserve in northeastern India, we found that malar- ial infection is a serious hindrance for front-line patrolling staff that limits the time they can spend in the field. We assessed the consequences of malaria both for local people and park staff in the general region and its indirect effects on wildlife protection. To accomplish this we compiled data from annual epidemi- ological records of malaria, the number of malaria cases and associated mortality, financial costs, and loss of time spent patrolling. Over a 4-year period (2006–2009), the majority (71%) of forest department staff in Pakke Tiger Reserve suffered from malaria. Malaria treatments cost park managers nearly 3% of their total budget and caused a net loss of 44,160 man hours of anti-poaching effort. The government forest and health departments involved in the employment and health of park staff have separate missions and responsibilities, yet our findings show that a multi-disciplinary approach to conservation is essential to avoid overall systemic failure. Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Nature reserves in developing nations often suffer from chronic poaching, which can have a serious impact on native wildlife pop- ulations (Terborgh et al., 2002; Laurance et al., 2006; Corlett, 2007). Anti-poaching patrols can be vital for reducing hunting pressure. To ensure effective park protection, a general rule of thumb is to aim for an anti-poaching staff density of 1 person per 20 km 2 (Bell and Clarke, 1986). However, the efficiency of patrolling staff also strongly depends on the logistical support, servicing, and provi- sioning they receive (Leader-Williams et al., 1990). Pakke Wildlife Sanctuary and Tiger Reserve is a protected area within the Eastern Himalaya global biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al., 2000) of northeastern India. Within the reserve, the density of anti-poaching staff (1 person per 8.56 km 2 ) is well within the suggested guidelines of 1 person per 20 km 2 (Bell and Clarke, 1986). Nonetheless, anti-poaching patrols are challenging for park staff, given that the reserve has undulating terrain, spans an inter- state boundary, and has a long history of sanctioned hunting (until as late as 2000). Equally significant is that malaria seriously diminishes anti-poaching activities in the reserve. Malaria is one of the most serious human maladies in the tropics and subtropics, with around 225 million cases occurring worldwide each year (WHO, 2010). The disease is caused by protozoan blood parasites (Plasmodium spp.) which are largely vectored by female Anopheles mosquitoes. India accounts for 76% of the 2.5 million malaria cases reported annually in Southeast Asia (Kumar et al., 2007). A recent retrospective study from over 6000 areas in India estimated that 205,000 people below the age of 70 die from malaria every year, nearly half of which are adults (over 15 years old; Dhin- gra et al., 2010). Northeastern India, which is rich in forests and wild- life, has an especially high malarial incidence, with over five reported malaria cases per thousand people. Most other areas of In- dia have <2 cases per thousand people (Kumar et al., 2007). In addition to killing many people, malaria is a debilitating disease that creates a massive socio-economic burden, especially for the poor and in areas with limited access to health care (Sachs and Malaney, 2002). Malaria reduces human productivity in various ways, including efforts to promote wildlife conservation. Over a 4-year period, we assessed the impacts of malaria on anti-poaching efforts in Pakke Tiger Reserve, both by estimating its direct impact on forest patrollers and its potential downstream consequences for park protection. We used data on malaria incidence, augmented with extensive interview data, to understand how malaria hampers on-the-ground protection efforts in this internationally important wildlife reserve. 0006-3207/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.06.003 ⇑ Corresponding author. Address: School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland 4870, Australia. Tel.: +61 7 4042 1819; fax: +61 7 4042 1390. E-mail addresses: nandinivelho@gmail.com (N. Velho), bill.laurance@jcu.edu.au (W.F. Laurance). 1 Address: Nandini Velho, National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bangalore 560 065, India. Tel.: +91 72 59620297; fax: +91 80 23636662. Biological Conservation xxx (2011) xxx–xxx Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Biological Conservation journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/biocon Please cite this article in press as: Velho, N., et al. Human disease hinders anti-poaching efforts in Indian nature reserves. Biol. Conserv. (2011), doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.06.003