On Behavioral Depression in White-tailed Deer Steve Wolverton & Lisa Nagaoka & Pinliang Dong & James H. Kennedy Published online: 27 October 2011 # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011 Abstract Behavioral depression is a decline in prey availability because of enhanced alert response, movement away from areas, increased social behavior, and other responses to predators. This form of resource depression is an alternative hypothesis to be contrasted to over-exploitation that potentially explains a decrease in hunting efficiency over time should the zooarchaeologist observe a decline in the relative abundance of remains of high-rank prey. Gregarious ungulates, such as many North American cervids, may exhibit such behavioral responses under predation. The white- tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), one of the most common high-rank prey animals from Holocene archaeological sites in eastern North America, is less gregarious, more r-selected, and exhibits greater home-range fidelity than other cervids. As a result, whitetails are less likely to exhibit behavioral depression than other North American ungulates, which may explain their common occurrence in Holocene archaeological faunas, such as that from the Eagle’ s Ridge site in southeast Texas where resource depression appears to have occurred from 4,500 to 1,500 years ago. The behavioral ecology of ungulate species should be considered on a case-by-case basis to develop testable hypotheses about prehistoric human predation. Keywords Resource depression . Exploitation depression . Behavioral depression . White-tailed deer . Harvest pressure . Zooarchaeology Introduction Resource depression is a decline in prey availability that is directly attributable to the presence of predators, such as changes in prey behavior and/or a decline in prey J Archaeol Method Theory (2012) 19:462–489 DOI 10.1007/s10816-011-9121-4 S. Wolverton (*) : L. Nagaoka : P. Dong Department of Geography, Institute of Applied Science, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA e-mail: wolverton@unt.edu J. H. Kennedy Department of Biological Science, Institute of Applied Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA