Absorption, psychological boundaries and attitude towards dreams as correlates of dream recall: two decades of research seen through a meta-analysis DOMINIC BEAULIEU-PRE ´ VOST and ANTONIO ZADRA Department of Psychology, Universite´ de Montre´al, Montre´al, Que´bec, Canada Accepted in revised form 7 November 2006; received 25 July 2005 SUMMARY Many studies have reported positive correlations between dream recall frequency (DRF) and measures of absorption, psychological boundaries and attitude towards dreams. A majority of these studies, however, have relied exclusively on retrospective measures of DRF even though daily dream logs are generally considered to be more direct and valid measures of DRF. The first goal of the present meta-analysis was to evaluate the effect sizes of three variables (absorption, psychological boundaries and attitude towards dreams) as correlates of DRF. The second goal was to evaluate if these effect sizes varied as a function of how DRF was operationalized (i.e. retrospective measure versus dream log). Data from 24 studies were included in the analyses. For each of the three variables investigated, correlations with retrospective measures of DRF were of greater magnitude than those obtained with daily logs. These results indicate that scores on measures of absorption and psychological boundaries are not related to DRF per se, but rather to people’s tendency to retrospectively underestimate or overestimate their DRF, while attitude towards dreams is related both to DRF per se and to people’s retrospective estimation bias. Implications of these findings for dream research are discussed. keywords absorption, attitude towards dreams, dream log, dream recall frequency, psychological boundaries, retrospective measure INTRODUCTION For over 40 years, numerous studies have investigated the relationship between dream recall frequency (DRF) and various personality dimensions such as neuroticism, extraver- sion, trait anxiety and repression. Although these research efforts initially gave rise to promising data, many studies yielded negative results. Overall, none of these dimensions showed robust and consistent correlations with measures of DRF. As discussed in an exhaustive literature review (Schredl and Montasser, 1996–97a) the influence of these personality variables on DRF is, at best, minimal. As an example, Schonbar (1959) found a correlation between a scale of repression sensitization and DRF (r ¼ 0.59) and proposed that a repressive life style inhibits dream recall. As these results could be seen as a validation of a psychodynamic view of dreaming, many replication studies followed. However, most of these studies produced low to moderate correlations, which dampened whatever enthusiasm existed for the hypothesis (Cohen, 1979). In light of this failure to relate DRF to classic personality variables, researchers sought more promising personality dimensions to correlate with DRF. Absorption and psycholo- gical boundaries were two such candidates. Absorption can be defined as an Ôopenness to absorbing and self-altering experi- encesÕ (Tellegen and Atkinson, 1974). For example, high absorbers are generally moved by artistic creations, able to vividly recollect past experiences and tend to experience episodes of missing time. The concept of psychological boundaries, originally developed by Hartmann (1984, 1989) to better understand the psychological characteristics of people with life-long nightmares, can be defined as the level of connection between the mind’s different functions, processes and structures. In essence, Ôboundary permeabilityÕ refers to Correspondence: Antonio Zadra, De´partement de psychologie, Uni- versite´ de Montre´al, C.P. 6128, succ. Centre-ville, Montreal, Que´bec H3C 3J7, Canada. Tel.: (514) 343-6626; fax: (514) 343-2285; e-mail: zadraa@psy.umontreal.ca J. Sleep Res. (2007) 16, 51–59 Ó 2007 European Sleep Research Society 51