122 fort william college corrupt activities by law enforcers seeking ways to adjust rates unof ficially. The dis- appearance of fines may also be related to the general decline of the qānūnnāmes in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The first two modern Ottoman penal codes (1840 and 1850) make no mention of fines as legitimate forms of punishment; in the 1850 code they are explicitly forbid- den. Although the last Ottoman criminal code (1858) stipulated several fines, these newer provisions were in conformity with French legal practices. On the other hand, Islamic criminal codes introduced in colo- nial and post-colonial Nigeria, as well as in Saudi Arabia, the Sudan, and the Islamic Republic of Iran, include fines among ta{zīr punishments, alongside flogging, incar- ceration, and banishment. In some cases, such as the Anglo-Muhammadan criminal law in Nigeria at the turn of the twentieth century, flogging—especially the flogging of women—was converted to a fine. Bibliography Metin M. Cogel, Boğaç Ergene, Haggay Etkes, and Thomas J. Miceli, Controlling corruption in law enforcement. Incentives, safeguards, and institutional change in the Ottoman empire, Journal of Interdisciplinary History 43/3 (2013), 353–76; Uriel Heyd, Djurm, EI2; Uriel Heyd, Studies in old Otto- man criminal law, ed. V. L. Ménage, Oxford 1973; Colin Imber, Ebuxs-Su{ud. The Islamic legal tradition, Stanford CA 1997; Firoze M. P. Kotwal, The supplementary texts to the Šāyest nē šāyest, Copenhagen 1969; Rudolph Peters, The Islamization of criminal law. A comparative analysis, WI 34 (1994), 246–74; Rudolph Peters, Islamic and secular crimi- nal law in nineteenth century Egypt. The role and function of the qadi, ILS 4 (1997), 70–90; Rudolph Peters, Crime and punish- ment in Islamic law. Theory and practice from the sixteenth to the twenty-first century, Cambridge 2005; Safia M. Safwat, Offences and penal- ties in Islamic law, IQ 26 (1982), 149–81; Irene Schneider, Imprisonment in pre-clas- sical and classical Islamic law, ILS 2 (1995), 157–73; Elyse Semerdjian, “Off the straight path.” Illicit sex, law, and community in Ottoman Aleppo, Syracuse 2008; Glen W. Swanson, The Ottoman police, Journal of Contemporary History 7 (1972), 243–60; Fariba Zarinebaf, Crime and punishment in Istanbul: 1700–1800, Berkeley 2011. Bogaç A. Ergene Fort William College Fort William College was estab- lished on 18 August 1800 by Lord Rich- ard Wellesley (d. 1837), Governor General of India, in order to provide instruction in the vernacular languages of India to the civil and military of ficials of the East India Company (Buchanan; Roebuck). The of fi- cial date of its founding was, however, announced as 4 May 1800, because that was the first anniversary of the British vic- tory, at Seringapatam, over Tīpū Sul｢ān (r. 1197–1213/1782–99) of the sultanate of Mysore. The teaching term began on 6 February 1801. The college was lodged in the Writers’ Building, which had been used since 1780 for young apprentice of fi- cials (writers) coming from England. There were four terms of two months each, with four vacations of one month each (Rank- ing 1911, 9). European professors were appointed at high salaries (1500 rupees per month), while European teachers received salaries of about Rs. 1000 per month. Indians were employed as munshīs (clerks, native teach- ers), with salaries ranging from Rs. 30 to Rs. 200, which were respectable compared with the salaries paid to Indians elsewhere. The college is most famous for institut- ing formal studies of Indian languages, both classical (Sanskrit, Arabic, and Per- sian) and modern (Hindustani, Bengali,