Jewish History © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012 DOI 10.1007/s10835-012-9149-3 Crisis and authority in early modern Ashkenaz JAY R. BERKOVITZ University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Amherst, USA E-mail: jrb@judnea.umass.edu Abstract The social and intellectual foundations of medieval Judaism were shaken by a series of developments that included the invention of printing, advances in scientific knowledge, hu- manism, and the commercial revolution. In early modern Ashkenaz, the ensuing crisis centered on questions of ritual transmission and leadership. Minhagbücher composed in seventeenth- century Worms and Frankfurt urged the preservation and reinstatement of medieval customs relating to synagogue worship and rituals practiced in the home, while in some cases newer customs were also incorporated. However, the writings of Rabbi Ya’ir H . ayyim Bacharach were more far-reaching in response to the crisis of authority, as is evident in his forthright independence in matters of ritual and law. Customs could be considered authentic, in his view, provided they were textually based, were proven to be historically reliable, and enjoyed popu- lar consent. His decision to consult kabbalistic sources—a departure from the resistance Kab- balah had encountered in early modern Ashkenaz—rested in part on the theological appeal of mysticism. Reflecting contemporary political philosophy and jurisprudence, Bacharach’s unequivocal endorsement of lay communal authority hinged on its elected status and on the legitimacy of law founded on principles of equity and justice. The early modern period, as Theodore Rabb has aptly demonstrated, was an era of profound instability for European society. Over the course of the seventeenth century, especially, the lives of Europeans across the continent were transformed by unanticipated social, economic, and political upheaval. Among the causes of instability were the powerful after-effects of the Ref- ormation; rapid population growth and inflation; the cultural and religious implications of the scientific revolution; greater social and geographical mo- bility; and increased intervention by state and ecclesiastical authorities in vil- lage life. In Rabb’s view, these developments set the stage at mid-seventeenth century for a series of revolts that together constituted a veritable crisis, and only after the crisis subsided could a new era of stability commence. 1 For European Jews, each of the developments identified by Rabb contributed to their general insecurity. Their social, political, and economic well-being was directly impaired, while the cultural dynamic of Jewish life was equally af- fected. As a rule, challenges to the authority of the Jewish religious tradition or its interpreters tend to be most acute during periods of social turmoil. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, questions concerning the relevance and continued value of received traditions may have become more disquiet- ing than ever before, especially within the context of the widening cultural