287 Tourism Analysis, Vol. 19, pp. 287–300 1083-5423/14 $60.00 + .00 Printed in the USA. All rights reserved. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3727/108354214X14029467968402 Copyright Ó 2014 Cognizant Comm. Corp. E-ISSN 1943-3999 www.cognizantcommunication.com Address correspondence to Haywantee Ramkissoon, Ph.D., Monash Sustainability Institute, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia. Tel: +61 449534097; E-mail: Haywantee.Ramkissoon@monash.edu visitors seeking outdoor recreation experiences are increasing in national parks (Ramkissoon, Smith, & Weiler, 2013a, 2013b; Tonge, Moore, & Taplin, 2011). As a result, visitor satisfaction is a vital aspect of national parks’ marketing and management prac- tice (Hwang, Lee, & Chen, 2005; Ramkissoon et al., 2013b), with consumers demanding that their expectations be met or exceeded. The emotional bond that an individual shares with environments such as national parks is commonly referred to in the tourism, leisure, and environ- mental psychology literature as place attachment. People get attached to places they share an emo- tional tie with (Low & Altman, 1992), which often VISITOR SATISFACTION AND PLACE ATTACHMENT IN NATIONAL PARKS HAYWANTEE RAMKISSOON,*† LIAM DAVID GRAHAM SMITH,* AND SARAH KNEEBONE* *Behaviourworks Australia, Monash Sustainability Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia †Australia & International Tourism Research Unit, Faculty of Arts, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia This study examines the relationships between visitor satisfaction and place attachment. Confirma- tory factor analysis and structural equation modeling were used to test competing models of visitor satisfaction and place attachment represented as a (i) unidimensional, (ii) first-order, and (iii) second- order factor. Data were collected from a sample of 525 visitors at the Bruce Peninsula National Park, in the state of Ontario, Canada. Results indicate visitor satisfaction is a better predictor of place attachment as a second-order construct. Findings are discussed with respect to their applied and theo- retical relevance. Practical applications of the study include strategies aimed at achieving optimum visitor satisfaction and promoting place attachment in national parks. Key words: Visitor satisfaction; Place attachment; National parks; Unidimensional; First- and second-order factor Introduction Research on visitor satisfaction in nature-based attractions advocates examining visitors’ experi- ences as their influence on place attachment can be invaluable in bringing long-term benefits for man- agers of these settings. With the modern and sophis- ticated tourist looking for more natural heritage offerings (Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2010), nature-based tourism is growing fast with significant potential for the tourism industry (Eagles, 2001; O’Neill, Riscinto-Kozub, & Van Hyfte, 2010). Driven by a desire to escape the routine and/or attracted by the wide open green spaces (O’Neill et al., 2010),