Stressors, social support, and effects upon performance in golf TIM REES 1 , LEW HARDY 2 , & PAUL FREEMAN 1 1 Exercise and Sport Psychology Unit, School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter and 2 School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, University of Wales Bangor, Bangor, UK (Accepted 27 February 2006) Abstract In this study, we extended the work of Rees and Hardy (2004) by examining the main and stress-buffering effects of social support upon sports performance in a different context, using a different outcome measure, and a specific time-frame. A high-level performance sample of 117 male golfers (mean age 24.8, s ¼ 8.3) completed measures of social support and stressors before competitions. Performance outcome was recorded. Moderated hierarchical regression analyses revealed significant (P 5 0.05) main effects for stressors upon performance in 8 of the 11 models tested (R 2 ¼ 0.08 – 0.21). Over and above the variance accounted for by stressors, there were significant (P 5 0.05) main effects for social support upon performance in all models tested (DR 2 ¼ 0.10 – 0.24). In all models, stressors were associated with worse performance, whereas social support was associated with better performance. There were no significant interactions (stress-buffering effects). Main effects for social support upon performance suggest that social support may have aided performance directly, regardless of the level of stress. Keywords: Social support, performance Introduction Although I. G. Sarason, Sarason and Pierce (1990) proposed that social support might affect sports performance, there has been no explicit attempt to test this proposal. A few researchers have noted social support as an important resource within a per- formance context (e.g. Gould, Guinan, Greenleaf, Medbery, & Peterson, 1999; Holt & Hogg, 2002; Rees & Hardy, 2000), and recently some (Rees & Hardy, 2004; Rees, Ingledew, & Hardy, 1999) have used process-related performance measures. Using a high-level (regional to international standard) sample of tennis players, Rees and Hardy (2004) found evidence for main effects of social support and interactive effects of social support and stressors upon processes underlying performance. The main effects implied that social support positively influ- enced performance, regardless of the level of stress. The interactive effects were explained in terms of stress-buffering (for reviews, see Cohen, 1988; Cohen, Underwood, & Gottlieb, 2000; B. R. Sarason, Sarason, & Pierce, 1990a; Veiel & Baumann, 1992): higher levels of social support protected tennis players from the harmful effects of stress upon performance, but social support was relatively unimportant for those not experiencing stress. As high-level sport is characterized by a demand to perform well when under intense pressure (Jones, 1995), studies of high-level performance are parti- cularly notable. The purpose of the present study was to extend the work of Rees and Hardy (2004) by examining the impact of social support on perfor- mance using a sample of high-level golfers. This study also addressed Rees and Hardy’s recommen- dations to conduct studies in different contexts, using different outcome measures and specific time- frames. Although Rees and Hardy (2004) assessed per- ceived social support, the present study assessed the influence of received support upon performance. This distinction is highlighted, because perceived support (often referred to as the perception of available support) and received support (often referred to as enacted support) are considered separate constructs (Dunkel-Schetter & Bennett, 1990; Helgeson, 1993; Wethington & Kessler, 1986). The importance of receiving social support has been implicated in relation to dealing with competitive stress (Crocker, 1992), slumps in performance (Madden, Kirkby, & McDonald, 1989), and burn-out (Gould, Tuffey, Udry, & Loehr, 1996), and the recommendations Correspondence: T. Rees, Exercise and Sport Psychology Unit, School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, St Luke’s Campus, Heavitree Road, Exeter EX1 2LU, UK. E-mail: tim.j.rees@exeter.ac.uk Journal of Sports Sciences, January 1st 2007; 25(1): 33 – 42 ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online Ó 2007 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/02640410600702974