Forno, F. (2011). Voluntary associations. In D. Southerton (Ed.), Encyclopedia of consumer culture. (pp. 1511-1512). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412994248.n572 Voluntary Associations Francesca Forno University of Bergamo, Italy francesca.forno@unibg.it Word Count: 1.035 Voluntary associations (also called voluntary organizations, secondary associations, or just associations) may be defined as a group which has some sort of formal organizational structure, made up of people who come together of their own will in order to pursue a common interest or goal. Participation in associational activities gives members the chance to interact with others, with whom they may exchange information and advice on a given issue. Generally in associations, a network of social relationships is created, based on trust and common standards of reciprocity, also known as ‘social capital’, which can help facilitate processes of social cooperation both economically and politically. For almost two decades, scientific and public debates have focused on the relationship between participation in associations and the quality of democracies. Scholars have concentrated particularly on the complex relationship between forms of public involvement in voluntary associations and the positive functioning of public institutions. This issue was first raised by Tocqueville (2000 [1835]) and later taken up by Robert Putnam (1993). As stressed by the pluralist theorists of liberal democracy, associations play a vital role in the mediation of interests between citizens and the state. According to Putnam, the connection between the vitality of civic organizations and positive democratic functioning may be achieved in two main ways: firstly by combining various demands of citizenship and turning them into political ones via appropriate democratic forms; secondly by providing citizens with a kind of ‘school of democracy’, educating them towards collective action and civic engagement. With regard to associations, many scholars have emphasized how the organizational models they adopt play a very significant role in determining associations’ capacity for action and their members’ level of civic orientation. A phenomenon that has been particularly closely studied is associations’ level of professionalism. For example, studying associations in the US, Theda Skocpol (2003) observed that the expanded capacity for fundraising and the lobbying of political institutions has led to both a major decrease in associations’ interest in strategies directly involving the public as well as a general de-politicization of their activities. An overall tendency towards the professionalization of associations has been noted in almost all Western countries. On this point,