1 Towards a learning path specification José Janssen, Adriana Berlanga, Hubert Vogten, Rob Koper Abstract Flexible lifelong learning requires comparability and exchangeability of courses, programmes and other types of learning actions both in a national and international context. This paper argues that in order to achieve comparability and exchangeability a uniform and meaningful way to describe learning paths towards attainment of learning outcomes is needed. The paper identifies the requirements for a learning path specification drawing on a study of literature in the field of curriculum design and lifelong learning, and on recent initiatives which aimed to enhance comparability and exchangeability of learning actions. Two existing specifications designed to describe learning programmes, XCRI and IMS-LD, are investigated to see whether they can fulfil the identified requirements. The fact that IMS-LD has a generic way to define completion of learning paths as well as an expression language to describe all kinds of conditions make IMS-LD a more likely candidate. A learning path model is presented identifying the main elements of a learning path specification and mapping them on IMS-LD. 1. Introduction Notions like the “European area of higher education” (Bologna-Declaration, 1999) or “a European area of lifelong learning” (CEC, 2001) are still merely concepts rather than realities, although quite some progress has been made exploring ways to start realising easy exchange of courses and programs across national and institutional borders (CEC, 2004; González & Wagenaar, 2003; PLOTEUS, 2006; Pöyry, Pelto-Aho, & Puustjärvi, 2002; TENCompetence, 2005). Apart from the aim of improving the mobility of employees across Europe, the idea is to enhance flexible lifelong learning by removing barriers to the exchange of programs, courses, and other educational offerings which in this paper will all be called learning actions. Exchangeability is an attribute of the relation between learning actions indicating that one action can be substituted or replaced by another, simply because they result in similar learning outcomes or because they result in learning outcomes which are formally recognised (certified) as a valid alternative within a wider programme. To establish whether or not learning actions are exchangeable they have to be described in a way that they can be compared at least on the main variable in this definition: learning outcomes or competences. If two learning actions lead to the same competences at comparable levels this information might suffice to conclude they are exchangeable. However other factors might be included in the equation, like the amount of effort the learning action requires, previous studies, and formal recognition (Pöyry, Pelto-Aho, & Puustjärvi, 2002; Ramos, Kautonen, & Keller, 2001). On a more prosaic level a learner might find a course cannot simply be replaced by another due to all kinds of possible constraints (e.g. time, costs). Information on these and possibly other characteristics have to be provided to enable lifelong learners to compare learning actions and select those that best match their needs. In formal education the aim to create a European area of higher education has led to calls for an “over-arching European credit accumulation and transfer framework that can make system intelligible to system” (Adam, 2001). Most European higher education systems have witnessed reforms leading to greater convergence of qualification structures in the wake of the Bologna Declaration. Despite a broad adoption and use of the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS), the desired transparency and convergence of higher education systems still hasn’t been achieved (Adam, 2001; Karran, 2004). Apart from difficulties stemming from different deployment of the system, true transparency would require that credits gained from different types and levels of educational experience are clearly labelled, identified and understood. An additional challenge lies in the fact that in lifelong learning the learner might perform formal, non-formal and informal learning actions in parallel: take a job-related training course