An assessment of the Bhutanese traditional medicine for its ethnopharmacology, ethnobotany and ethnoquality: Textual understanding and the current practices Phurpa Wangchuk n,1 , Stephen G. Pyne, Paul A. Keller School of Chemistry, University of Wollongong, NSW 2500, Australia article info Article history: Received 24 July 2012 Received in revised form 12 April 2013 Accepted 12 April 2013 Available online 24 April 2013 Keywords: Bhutanese traditional medicine Medicinal plant Ethnopharmacology Ethnobotany Ethnoquality abstract Ethnopharmacological relevance: This study involves the assessment of the Bhutanese traditional medicine (BTM) which was integrated with the mainstream biomedicine in 1967 to provide primary health care services in the country. It caters to 20–30% of the daily out-patients within 49 traditional medicine units attached to 20 district modern hospitals and 29 Basic Health Units in the country. Aim of the study: This study presents the ethnopharmacological, ethnobotanical and the ethnoquality concepts in relation to mainstream Tibetan medicine and describes the current practices of BTM. Materials and methods: Experienced BTM practitioners (Drung-tshos and Smen-pas) were selected using a convenience sampling method and were interviewed using an open questionnaire followed by informal discussions. The corpus of BTM, Tibetan and scientific literature was obtained and the information on ethnopharmacological, ethnoquality and ethnobotanical concepts and current practices of BTM was extracted. Results: This study found that the BTM shares many similarities in terms of materia medica, pharmacopoeia and the principles and concepts of ethnopharmacology and ethnobotany with its mainstream Tibetan medicine. However, the resourceful Bhutanese Drung-tshos and Smen-pas have adapted this medical system based on the local language, culture, disease trend, health care needs and their familiarity with the locally available medicinal ingredients making it particular to the country. A number of notable distinctions observed in the current practices include a code of classification of diseases (only 79 of 404 types of disorders recognized), formulations (currently used only 103 of thousands formulation types), usage of medicinal plants (only 229 species of thousands described) and selected treatment procedures (golden needle and water therapy). This BTM was found to cater to 20– 30% of daily out-patients visiting 49 modern hospitals and basic health units in the country. Conclusions: The BTM has been evolved from the Tibetan medicine. While the pharmacopoeia, ethnopharmacology, ethnobotany and the ethnoquality aspects shares commonalities with the main- stream Tibetan medicine, there are some practices unique to BTM. Such uniqueness observed in the current practices of BTM include formulations, medicinal plants collection and usage, and the treatment procedures including golden needle and water therapy. This could be a promising source of information for the rediscovery of useful remedies, the development of modern phytotherapeutics and the establishment of efficient quality control measures. & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction In Bhutan, there are two forms of traditional healing systems: the G.so-ba-rig-pa medicine and the Folk Medicine or Local Healing Systems. The practitioners of the Local Healing Systems are known as Folk or Local Healers and include Lama (accomplished Buddhist master), Gom-chen (layman Buddhist practitioner), Rtsip (astrologer), D.pao (shaman), Bon-po (animistic practitioner), Ru-to-thue-mi (bone setter) and Dug-jib-mi (poison extractor). Except for highly accom- plished Buddhist master like Lama, Gom-chen (layman Buddhist practitioner), Rtsip (astrologer) which mainly practices spiritual healing system, rest of the Local Healing Systems are primarily based on oral traditions passed down from generation to generation, from father to son and master to apprentice. The practitioners of G.so-ba- rig-pa medicine are known as Drung-tsho (Traditional Physician) and Smen-pa (Traditional Clinical Assistant). The Bhutanese G.so-ba-rig-pa medicine was adapted from a Tibetan scholarly education system. This medical tradition has properly documented principles, pharma- copoeias, diagnostic procedures and treatment regimens. Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep Journal of Ethnopharmacology 0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.04.030 n Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 2 4221 4338; fax: +61 4221 4287. E-mail address: phurpaw@yahoo.com (P. Wangchuk). 1 Permanent address: Menjong Sorig Pharmaceuticals, Ministry of Health, Thimphu, Bhutan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 305–310