JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 16: 138–150, 2004 Copyright © Association for Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology ISSN: 1041-3200 print / 1533-1571 online DOI: 10.1080/10413200490437886 Self-Talk in the Swimming Pool: The Effects of Self-Talk on Thought Content and Performance on Water-Polo Tasks ANTONIS HATZIGEORGIADIS,Y ANNIS THEODORAKIS, AND NIKOS ZOURBANOS University of Thessaly The present study examined the effect of instructional and motivational self-talk on the occur- rence of interfering thoughts and performance on two water-polo tasks with similar character- istics performed in the same environment. Two experiments were conducted in the swimming pool, one involving a precision task (throwing a ball at target) and one involving a power task (throwing a ball for distance). In the first experiment (precision task), both self-talk groups improved their performance in comparison to the baseline measure, with participants using instructional self-talk improving more. In the second experiment (power task), only the mo- tivational self-talk group improved its performance significantly. In both experiments the oc- currence of interfering thoughts declined for both groups. The results of the study provide further support for the effectiveness of self-talk and give preliminary evidence regarding likely mechanisms through which self-talk influence performance, that is through indications that self-talk reduces thoughts not related to task execution, thus enhancing concentration to the task. The use of cognitive strategies to improve performance has been a common practice among athletes for many years, however its systematic training has only recently begun and is expand- ing rapidly. Accordingly, the interest of sport psychologists in researching those techniques and designing mental training programs is growing. One of those techniques that have at- tracted researchers’ attention within the last decade is self-talk (ST). ST has been defined as an “internal dialogue in which the individuals interpret feelings and perceptions, regulate and change evaluations and cognitions and give themselves instructions and reinforcement” (Hackfort & Schwenkmezger, 1993, p. 355). In simple words, ST refers to statements people make to themselves either internally or out-loud. Originally, researchers discriminated between positive and negative ST. Weinberg (1988) describes positive ST as ST that helps athletes to stay focused, not to dwell on past mistakes, or project far in the future. In contrast, negative ST is that which is inappropriate, anxiety producing and counterproductive. More contemporary approaches further discriminate ST in relation to its content. Zinsser, Bunker, and Williams (2001) identified that ST can be characterised as instructional or motivational. Instructional ST refers to statements related to Received 10 September 2002; accepted 20 April 2003. We would like to thank Dr. Marios Goudas for his valuable assistance in preparing and revising the manuscript. The financial support of the State Scholarships Foundation of Greece to the first author is gratefully acknowledged. Address correspondence to Antonis Hatzigeorgiadis, Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of Thessaly, Karies, 42100, Trikala, Greece. E-mail: ahatzi@pe.uth.gr 138