Pelagic protected areas: the missing dimension in ocean conservation Edward T. Game 1, 2 , Hedley S. Grantham 2 , Alistair J. Hobday 3 , Robert L. Pressey 4 , Amanda T. Lombard 5 , Lynnath E. Beckley 6 , Kristina Gjerde 7 , Rodrigo Bustamante 8 , Hugh P. Possingham 2 and Anthony J. Richardson 2, 8, 9 1 The Nature Conservancy, South Brisbane, QLD 4101, Australia 2 The Ecology Centre and Centre for Applied Environmental Decision Analysis, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia 3 Climate Adaptation Flagship, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, GPO Box 1538, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia 4 Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia 5 Department of Botany, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, PO Box 77000, Port Elizabeth 6031, South Africa 6 School of Environmental Science, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia 7 IUCN Global Marine Program, ul Piaskowa 12c, 05-510 Konstancin-Chylice, Poland 8 Climate Adaptation Flagship, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, PO Box 120, Cleveland, QLD 4163, Australia 9 School of Physical Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia Fewer protected areas exist in the pelagic ocean than any other ecosystem on Earth. Although there is increas- ing support for marine protected areas (MPAs) as a tool for pelagic conservation, there have also been numerous criticisms of the ecological, logistical and economic feasibility of place-based management in the dynamic pelagic environment. Here we argue that recent advances across conservation, oceanography and fish- eries science provide the evidence, tools and information to address these criticisms and confirm MPAs as defen- sible and feasible instruments for pelagic conservation. Debate over the efficacy of protected areas relative to other conservation measures cannot be resolved with- out further implementation of MPAs in the pelagic ocean. Introduction The marine pelagic environment is the largest realm on Earth, constituting 99% of the biosphere volume [1]. In addition to supplying >80% of the fish consumed by humans [2], pelagic ecosystems account for nearly half of the photosynthesis on Earth [3], directly or indirectly support almost all marine life and even play a major role in the pace and extent of climate change [4]. Pelagic ecosystems (see Glossary), defined here as the physical, chemical and biological features of the marine water col- umn, now face a multitude of threats including overfishing, pollution, climate change, eutrophication, mining and species introductions (Box 1). These threats can act syner- gistically [5–7] and can fundamentally alter pelagic eco- systems; important ecosystem components have been supplanted by opportunistic species [5,8], and some pelagic ecosystems have undergone dramatic shifts to undesirable states [9,10]. Although the extent of human impact in the pelagic ocean is a source of substantial debate [11–13], it is clear from declines in many species (e.g. [14–16]) that there is inadequate protection for pelagic biodiversity and eco- systems [17]. Protected areas are being used to safeguard all other major ecosystems on Earth [18,19], but a combi- nation of concerns over their feasibility and utility in pelagic environments has limited the establishment of pelagic protected areas (Box 2). Compared to other environments, the pelagic ocean has relatively few regulations specifically targeting the con- servation of biodiversity [20]. The governance of pelagic environments is, moreover, complicated by the pelagic ocean including waters both within national jurisdiction (near shore and exclusive economic zones; EEZs) and out- side (the ‘high seas’). Of those conservation regulations that exist, the vast majority are associated with the management of pelagic fisheries. This is partly because fisheries represent the largest anthropogenic threat, but also because in many regions, fisheries might be the sole Opinion Glossary Benthic ecosystem: physical marine substrate, its ecological processes and those organisms living in close relationship with it. Biodiversity surrogate: data used as a proxy for the distribution of biodiversity. Eddies: ocean current moving vertically in a semiclosed, circular motion. Exclusive economic zone (EEZ): area of the sea over which a state has special rights to the use of marine resources. Fish aggregation device (FAD): a drifting or tethered buoy used by pelagic fisheries to attract and detect pelagic fish schools. Frontal system: boundary separating two masses of water of different densities, typically warm water (less dense) and cold water (more dense). High seas: oceanic waters beyond the limits of territorial and/or economic jurisdiction of a state. Pelagic ecosystem: physical, chemical and biological features of the marine water column of the open oceans or seas rather than waters adjacent to land or inland waters. Regional Fisheries Management Organization (RFMO): multinational body responsible for the management of fish stocks on the high seas and fish stocks which migrate through the waters of more than just a single state. Remote sensing: acquisition of in situ information by remote devices such as satellites, planes or buoys floating at sea. Upwelling: wind-driven and/or topographic-induced motion of dense, cooler and usually nutrient-rich water toward the ocean surface. Vessel-monitoring system (VMS): satellite-based, positional tracking system used to monitor the activity of fishing vessels. Corresponding author: Game, E.T. (egame@tnc.org). TREE-1080; No of Pages 10 0169-5347/$ – see front matter ß 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.01.011 Available online xxxxxx 1 IOTC-2009-WPTT-Inf05a