329 25 Citizen design Participation and beyond Jeffrey Hou Urban design has historically been the domain of design and planning profession- als. The scope and complexity of projects and policies that consider form, functions, and finances frequently require specialized knowledge. Reinforced by the legacy of institutional and professional elitism in design and planning, the practice often shuns the participation and knowledge of ordinary citizens. The complex mecha- nisms that drive many large-scale projects also veil them from easy scrutiny. As a result, although urban design in essence addresses the making of the public realm, it was not until recent decades that its prac- tice has become more open to the involve- ment of the public. In the decades since the 1950s, increas- ing criticisms toward the impacts of large development on communities, environment, and historic character of the city have sub- jected urban design projects to closer examinations and often heated debates. In recent years, incentives and subsidies for private development along with the gen- trification of downtown and subsequent displacement of vulnerable populations have brought further public attention and con- testation among different interest groups. In some cases, participation has helped produce improved design or policies that address multiple needs and interests. In other instances, poorly conceived or man- aged public processes have resulted in dis- sent and protests, legal challenges, project delay, and increased cost to municipalities and developers. How has urban design practice addressed public involvement and deliberation? What are the challenges and opportunities for public participation in urban design? What are the current trends and directions in both theory and practice? In this chapter, using the experience of North America and more specifically the United States as a case study, I examine the growing complexity and challenges of public par- ticipation in the increasingly diverse and pluralized urban settings. In reviewing the recent discourses and practices, I also com- ment on the trends of democratic urban design, which has evolved from an institu- tionalized participatory model to a more inclusive practice of “citizen design.” Rise of citizens in urban design In recent decades, various forms of partici- patory design and planning have emerged in cities around the world. In the United States, although citizen participation has