Please cite this article in press as: A.F. Fragopoulou, et al., Cranial and postcranial skeletal variations induced in mouse embryos by mobile phone radiation, Pathophysiology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.pathophys.2009.10.002 ARTICLE IN PRESS PATPHY-647; No. of Pages 9 Pathophysiology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx Cranial and postcranial skeletal variations induced in mouse embryos by mobile phone radiation Adamantia F. Fragopoulou, Stauros L. Koussoulakos ∗ , Lukas H. Margaritis Department of Cell Biology and Biophysics, Faculty of Biology, N.&K. University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis 15784, Greece Received 25 August 2009; received in revised form 26 September 2009; accepted 29 September 2009 Abstract This study focuses on foetal development following mild daily exposure of pregnant mice to near field electromagnetic radiation emitted by a mobile phone. The investigation was motivated by the fact that the potentially hazardous electromagnetic radiation emitted by mobile phones is currently of tremendous public interest. Physically comparable pregnant mice were exposed to radiofrequency radiation GSM 900 MHz emitted by a mobile phone. Within 5 h after birth most cubs were fixed followed by double staining in toto, and conventional paraffin histology. Other cubs remained with their mothers until teeth eruption. Structural development was assessed by examining newborns for the presence of anomalies and/or variations in soft tissues and skeletal anatomy. Electromagnetic radiofrequency exposed newborns, externally examined, displayed a normal phenotype. Histochemical and histological studies, however, revealed variations in the exposed foetuses with respect to control ones concerning the ossification of cranial bones and thoracic cage ribs, as well as displacement of Meckelian cartilage. Littermates examined after teeth eruption displayed normal phenotypes. It is concluded that mild exposure to mobile phone radiation may affect, although transiently, mouse foetal development at the ossification level. The developmental variations observed could be explained by considering the different embryonic origin and mode of ossification of the affected skeletal elements. © 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Birth defects; Cranium; GSM; Ossification; Rib 1. Introduction Over three billions of people in more than 200 coun- tries are daily exposed consciously to electromagnetic fields (EMFs). Thousands of them and many others are also exposed to EMFs (e.g., base stations, wireless phones, and wi-fi) of varying strength unintentionally and sometimes uncon- sciously. Early data [1–3] indicated that EMFs may cause several disturbances in the physiology of many animal and plant species. The last decade has witnessed a dramatic increase in the extent and magnitude of the ambient EMFs. These fields are currently created mostly by mobile phone communication units and transmitting towers and are of major concern for the society because of their close prox- imity to human populations and sensitive somatic organs (e.g., accousticovestibular apparatus, brain, eyes, and testes). This concern is reflected into the huge literature (more than ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 210 7274612; fax: +30 210 7274742. E-mail address: skoussou@biol.uoa.gr (S.L. Koussoulakos). 50,000 scientific articles and books published) devoted to the biological effects of relevant radiofrequencies (RFs). Numer- ous reports support the notion that the biological risk from RFs [4–7] and from ELFs (extremely low frequencies) [8] for people is negligible. However, most of the studies car- ried out thus far implicate EMFs with a wide spectrum of disturbances at the anatomical, physiological, cellular and molecular level both in humans and animal models [4,9–12, and references therein]. Since such controversies are not yet settled and remain still vivid, further evaluation of the impact of new technologies on the human body is essential in order to elucidate this issue and to impose, if needed, new regulations to further limit health risks. Research performed worldwide seeks to evaluate any potential link between adverse health effects and the mobile phone radiation along with the associated mast stations [12,13]. Most studies focus on the effects of microwave radia- tion on near-source, high significance human organs [14–19]. There is no doubt that a great deal of the biological effects reported thus far are mainly caused by the part of the intrinsic 0928-4680/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pathophys.2009.10.002