1166 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2007, 21(4), 1166–1171  2007 National Strength & Conditioning Association STRENGTH,FLEXIBILITY, AND BALANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGHLY PROFICIENT GOLFERS TIMOTHY C. SELL, 1 YUNG-SHEN TSAI, 1,2 JAMES M. SMOLIGA, 1 JOSEPH B. MYERS, 1 AND SCOTT M. LEPHART 1 1 Neuromuscular Research Laboratory, Department of Sports Medicine and Nutrition, School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260; 2 Department of Physical Therapy, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan. ABSTRACT. Sell, T.C., Y.-S. Tsai, J.M. Smoliga, J.B. Myers, and S.M. Lephart. Strength, flexibility, and balance characteristics of highly proficient golfers. J. Strength Cond. Res. 21(4):1166– 1171. 2007.—Despite the emergence of golf-specific training pro- grams and training aids, relatively little research has been con- ducted examining the physical characteristics that are impor- tant to golf performance. We studied the strength, flexibility, and balance characteristics of golfers across 3 proficiency levels based on handicap index (HCP) (0, 1–9, and 10–20) to deter- mine the physical characteristics unique to highly proficient golfers. A total of 257 (age: 45.5  12.8 years, height: 180.6  6.5 cm, weight: 87.9  12.6 kg) healthy, male golfers participat- ed in the study. Testing included an assessment of strength (tor- so, shoulder, and hip), flexibility (torso, shoulder, and hip), and single-leg balance. Golfers in the highest proficiency group (HCP  0) had significantly ( p  0.05) greater hip strength, torso strength, shoulder strength, shoulder flexibility, hip flexibility, torso flexibility, and balance (eyes open) than golfers in the low- est proficiency group (HCP 10–20). The results of this study demonstrate that better golfers possess unique physical char- acteristics that are important to greater proficiency. These char- acteristics have also been demonstrated to be modifiable through golf-specific training programs. KEY WORDS. golf, conditioning, training INTRODUCTION I n 2004, the National Golf Foundation estimat- ed that there were 12.8 million adult golfers who played at least 8 times per year in the United States (19). Among individuals 7 years and older, golf is the fourth most popular sport (1). It is an activity that individuals can enjoy from early childhood until late adulthood. Concurrent to this popu- larity and participation level have been the increasing presence and development of golf-specific physical train- ing equipment, books, and videos available to the consum- er. These programs have been designed to enhance strength, flexibility, and balance in an attempt to improve proficiency and driving distance. Although the goals of these programs are well intentioned, it is not clear if the training methods or targeted physical characteristics are important to improving golf proficiency. Training should be based on the needs of the specific sport. Scientific ev- idence to show the important physical characteristics for improving golf performance may provide clinicians ideas for developing more efficient training programs for golf- ers. An initial step in the design of a golf-specific training program may be to determine the physical characteristics of highly proficient golfers. Mastery of the golf swing re- quires optimal balance, flexibility, and strength to coor- dinate the movements of multiple body segments in order to optimize proficiency and driving distance (14). Individ- uals who have mastered the golf swing demonstrate greater ball flight consistency (24) and greater club head speed (7), which should equate to increased driving dis- tance (14, 21). The physical characteristics of highly pro- ficient golfers are relatively unknown because there are very few studies that have examined and compared these physical characteristics across proficiency levels. Current studies have been limited to descriptive studies of a single cohort of golfers without comparisons across proficiency levels (3, 4, 12, 13, 16, 22, 25). None of these studies ex- amined strength, flexibility, or balance. Improving the strength, flexibility, and balance of golfers may have the dual benefit of improving perfor- mance and decreasing injuries. Understanding these physical characteristics would assist physical trainers, physical therapists, and athletic trainers in the design of golf-specific fitness programs. Therefore, the purpose of this project was to examine the strength, flexibility, and balance characteristics of golfers across proficiency level. We hypothesized that highly proficient golfers would pos- sess significantly greater strength, flexibility, and bal- ance ability than less proficient golfers. METHODS Experimental Approach to the Problem We employed a descriptive cohort study of 3 groups of golfers based on playing ability to determine the physical characteristics of highly proficient golfers. Subjects A total of 257 subjects (age: 45.5  12.8 years, height: 180.6  6.5 cm, weight: 87.9  12.6 kg) participated in the study. Subjects were separated into 3 groups accord- ing to proficiency based on their handicap index (HCP) (0, 1–9, 10–20). Subject group numbers and averaged demographics for each proficiency group are provided in Table 1. All subjects were men and right-handed golfers. Participants were excluded from the study if they had a current musculoskeletal injury that prevented participa- tion in golf or experienced pain during the golf swing. All subjects signed an informed consent form according to the university’s Institutional Review Board. Procedures Strength Testing. Bilateral shoulder internal and external strength, hip abduction and adduction strength, and torso rotation strength were assessed with the Biodex System III Multi-Joint Testing and Rehabilitation System (Bio- dex Medical Inc., Shirley, NY). Torque values were au- tomatically adjusted for gravity by the Biodex Advantage