chapter 5 egypt and the levant gregory d. mumford he intensity and nature of Egypto-Levantine relations have varied through time (see Table 5.1), encompassing overland and maritime commerce, diplomacy, alliances, emigra- tion, imperialism, and deportations. Such cross-cultural relations incorporate varying impor- tations and local adaptations by each host culture, including architecture, art, material culture, language, literature, and religion. In times of Egyptian strength and imperialism, such as the New Kingdom, early Saite period, and quite possibly the Protodynastic to Early Dynastic period, there is oten a greater occurrence of Egyptian-style construction, monuments, diverse artefacts, transitory through permanent migrants, and other inluence in the Levant. During such periods, trade still forms a major mechanism for transmitting Egyptian items and inspir- ing local-regional imitations, while Egyptian garrisons, transitory troops, emissaries, other personnel, and ‘Egyptianized’ Canaanites also play a substantial role in dispersing Egyptian materials and inluence. During other periods of Egyptian prosperity, such as the Old and Middle Kingdoms, Egypt relaxes its interactions with Palestine, attacking it periodically and sometimes sharing greater maritime commerce with Syria. During low points in Egyptian political stability, such as the Intermediate periods, Egyptian exports and local-regional cop- ies of Egyptian forms, motifs, and concepts generally decline with commerce oten relecting the main means of transferring Egyptian and Egyptian-style items and inluence. On the other hand, the Hyksos domination of Egypt’s eastern delta introduces more Levantine inluences into Egypt; the Hyksos, however, also adopt aspects of Egyptian culture and relay Egyptian and Egyptian-style materials, products, and motifs abroad (e.g. ‘Hyksos’ scarabs). Other ‘invad- ers’, such as the Assyrian through Persian Empires, plunder Egypt of architectural elements (e.g. obelisks), statuary, artefacts, and people; most of these things are transported through the Levant and into the Mesopotamian heartland, while Phoenicia becomes an indirect imitator and exporter of Egyptian-style products throughout the Levant and Mediterranean. Predynastic period Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age I Egyptian imports irst appear in Palestine during the Chalcolithic period, including a Naqada I-style calcite jar at Ghassul (Stager in Ehrich 1992: 26). North Sinai produced 05_MargreetLSteiner_Ch05.indd 69 05_MargreetLSteiner_Ch05.indd 69 11/9/2013 7:52:34 AM 11/9/2013 7:52:34 AM